散文網(wǎng) » 科技 »人文歷史 » 【簡譯】中世紀(jì)日本的封建制度

【簡譯】中世紀(jì)日本的封建制度

2022-08-22 10:03 作者:神尾智代 0人讀過 | 我要投稿

Feudalism in medieval Japan (1185-1603 CE) describes the relationship between lords and vassals where land ownership and its use was exchanged for military service and loyalty. Although present earlier to some degree, the feudal system in Japan was really established from the beginning of the Kamakura Period in the late 12th century CE when shoguns or military dictators replaced the emperor and imperial court as the country's main source of government. The shogunates distributed land to loyal followers and these estates (shoen) were then supervised by officials such as the jito (stewards) and shugo (constables). Unlike in European feudalism, these often-hereditary officials, at least initially, did not own land themselves. However, over time, the jito and shugo, operating far from the central government, gained more and more powers with many of them becoming large landowners (daimyo) in their own right and, with their own private armies, they challenged the authority of the shogunate governments. Feudalism as a nation-wide system thus broke down, even if the lord-vassal relationship did continue after the medieval period in the form of samurai offering their services to estate owners.

? ? ? ? ? 中世紀(jì)日本（公元1185-1603年）的封建制度展現(xiàn)了領(lǐng)主與附庸之間的關(guān)系，在這種關(guān)系中，土地所有權(quán)及其使用權(quán)是以軍事服務(wù)和忠誠來交換的。盡管在某種程度上，這種關(guān)系早已存在，但日本的封建制度真正確立于公元12世紀(jì)末的鐮倉時(shí)代，當(dāng)時(shí)幕府將軍（或軍事獨(dú)裁者）取代天皇和朝廷成為國家的主宰。幕府將土地分配給忠誠的追隨者，然后這些莊園（shoen）由諸如管家（jito，字面意思是“土地頭”）和警衛(wèi)（shugo，“（軍）知事”、“保護(hù)者”或“警官”）等官員監(jiān)管。與歐洲的封建制度不同，這些官員往往是世襲的。最初，他們并不擁有屬于自己的土地；然而，隨著時(shí)間的推移，遠(yuǎn)離中央政府的管家和警衛(wèi)獲得了越來越多的權(quán)力，他們中的許多人成為大地主（大名，daimyōs），并以自己的私人軍隊(duì)挑戰(zhàn)幕府政府的權(quán)威。封建制度作為一個(gè)全國性的體系因此而瓦解，即使在中世紀(jì)之后，領(lǐng)主與附庸的關(guān)系確實(shí)以武士向莊園主提供服務(wù)的形式繼續(xù)存在。

起源與結(jié) 構(gòu)

Feudalism (hoken seido), that is the arrangement between lords and vassals where the former gave favour or on (e.g. land, titles, or prestigious offices) in exchange for military service (giri) from the latter, began to be widespread in Japan from the beginning of the Kamakura Period (1185-1333 CE). The main instigator was Minamoto no Yoritomo (1147-1199 CE) who had established himself as the military dictator or shogun of Japan in 1192 CE. Replacing the dominance of the Japanese Emperor and the imperial court, the new system saw Yoritomo distribute land (which was often confiscated from defeated rivals) to his loyal followers and allies in return for their military service and continued support. Yoritomo was particularly adept at enticing members of the rival Taira clan to his, the Minamoto cause by offering them land and positions if they agreed to be his vassals in the new order.

? ? ? ? ? 封建制度（hoken seido），即領(lǐng)主和附庸之間的安排，前者給予寵愛或回報(bào)（如土地、頭銜或職位），以換取后者的軍事服務(wù)（giri），從鐮倉時(shí)代（公元1185-1333）開始在日本廣泛流行。主要代表者是源賴朝（公元1147-1199年），他在公元1192年成為日本的軍事獨(dú)裁者（或幕府將軍）。在新的制度下，源賴朝取代了日本天皇和朝廷的統(tǒng)治地位，將土地（通常是從被打敗的對手那里沒收的）分配給他忠實(shí)的追隨者和盟友，以回報(bào)他們的軍事服務(wù)和持續(xù)支持。源賴朝特別善于吸引敵對的平氏家族成員加入他和源氏的事業(yè)，如果對方同意成為他在新秩序中的附庸，就向他們提供土地和職位。

Unlike in Europe, the feudal system of Japan was less contractually based and a much more personal affair between lords and vassals with a strong paternalistic influence coming from the former, who were often referred to as oya or 'parent.' This 'family' feel was further strengthened by the fact that many lord-vassal relationships were inherited. The system allowed the shogun to have direct control of most of his territory, but the lack of formal institutions of government would be a lasting weakness of the shogunates as personal loyalties were rarely passed on to successive generations.

? ? ? ? ? 與歐洲不同的是，日本的封建制度較少以契約為基礎(chǔ)，而是領(lǐng)主和附庸之間的個(gè)人事務(wù)，前者具有強(qiáng)烈的家長式影響，他們經(jīng)常被稱為"大屋"或"家長"。這種"家庭"的感覺因許多領(lǐng)主與附庸的關(guān)系是繼承這一事實(shí)而得到進(jìn)一步加強(qiáng)。這種制度讓幕府將軍能直接控制其大部分領(lǐng)土，但缺乏正式的政府機(jī)構(gòu)則是幕府一個(gè)持久性的弱點(diǎn)，因?yàn)閭€(gè)人的忠誠度很少傳給下一代。

Jito

Some of the loyal followers of the shogun received many estates (shoen), which were often geographically disparate or distant from their traditional family homes, and so, rather than manage them directly themselves, they employed the services of an appointed steward (jito) for that purpose. Jito (and shugo - see below) was not a new position but had been used on a smaller scale in the Heian Period (794-1185 CE) and, appointed by the shogunate government, they became a useful tool for managing land, taxes and produce far from the capital. Here, too, is another difference with European feudalism as stewards never (officially) owned land themselves, that is until the wheels started to come off the feudal system.

? ? ? ? ? 幕府將軍的一些忠實(shí)追隨者得到了許多地產(chǎn)（shoen），這些地產(chǎn)通常在地理上是分散的，或者離他們傳統(tǒng)的家庭住宅很遠(yuǎn)，因此，他們不是自己直接管理這些地產(chǎn)，而是雇用了一個(gè)指定的管家（jito）來代管。Jito（和shugo--見下文）并不是一個(gè)新的職位，但在平安時(shí)代（公元794-1185年）就已經(jīng)在較小的范圍內(nèi)使用了，他們由幕府政府任命，成為管理遠(yuǎn)離首都的土地、稅收和產(chǎn)品的工具人。這里也是與歐洲封建制度的另一個(gè)區(qū)別，因?yàn)楣芗易约簭奈矗ㄕ剑碛羞^土地，也就是說，直到封建制度的車輪開始脫落時(shí)也是如此。

Jito literally means 'head of the land', and the position was open to men and women in the early medieval period. Their principal responsibility was to manage the peasants who worked their employer's land and collect the relevant local taxes. The steward was entitled to fees (about 10% of the land's produce) and tenure but was often bound by local customs and also held accountable to such national law codes as the Goseibai Shikimoku (1232 CE). In addition, aggrieved landowners and vassals could, from 1184 CE, turn to the Monchujo (Board of Inquiry) which looked after all legal matters including lawsuits, appeals, and disputes over land rights and loans. In 1249 CE a High Court, the Hikitsukeshu, was formed which was especially concerned with any disputes related to land and taxes.

? ? ? ? ? Jito的字面意思是 "土地的負(fù)責(zé)人"，在中世紀(jì)早期，這個(gè)職位對男性和女性都是開放的。他們的主要職責(zé)是管理在其雇主的土地上工作的農(nóng)民，并收取相關(guān)的地方稅。管家有權(quán)獲得費(fèi)用（約為土地產(chǎn)出的10%）和使用權(quán)，但往往受到當(dāng)?shù)亓?xí)俗的約束，同時(shí)也要對《御成敗式目》（公元1232年）等國家法律規(guī)范負(fù)責(zé)。此外，從公元1184年起，受侵害的土地所有者和附庸可以向調(diào)查委員會求助，該委員會負(fù)責(zé)處理所有法律事務(wù)，包括訴訟、上訴以及土地權(quán)利和貸款方面的糾紛。公元1249年，建立了高級法院Hikitsukeshu，它特別關(guān)注與土地和稅收有關(guān)的任何爭端。

Many jito eventually became powerful in their own right, and their descendants became daimyo or influential feudal landowners from the 14th century CE onwards. These daimyo ruled with a large degree of autonomy, even if they did have to follow certain rules laid down by the government such as where to build a castle.

? ? ? ? ? 從公元14世紀(jì)起，許多jito最終成為有權(quán)勢的人，他們的后代成為大名或有影響力的封建地主。這些大名的統(tǒng)治有很大程度的自主權(quán)，即使他們必須遵守政府規(guī)定的某些規(guī)則，如在哪里建造城堡。

Shugo

Another layer of estate managers was the shugo or military governor or constable who had policing and administrative responsibilities in their particular province. In the 14th century CE, there were 57 such provinces and so a shugo was involved in several estates at once, unlike the jito who only had one to worry about one. A shugo, literally meaning 'protector', made decisions according to local customs and military laws and, like the jito, they collected regular taxes in kind for the shogunate government, a portion of which they were entitled to keep for themselves. They were also charged with collecting special taxes (tansen) for one-off events like coronations and temple-building projects and organising labour for state projects like building roads and guesthouses along the routes. Other responsibilities included capturing pirates, punishing traitors, and calling up warriors for use by the state - not only in wartime but also as part of the regular rotation system where provinces supplied guards for the capital Heiankyo (Kyoto).

? ? ? ? ? 莊園管理者的另一個(gè)職位是shugo或軍事總督或警衛(wèi)，他們在其特定的省份負(fù)有治安和行政責(zé)任。公元14世紀(jì)，有57個(gè)省份，因此，一個(gè)shugo同時(shí)參與幾個(gè)莊園的管理，而不像jito那樣只負(fù)責(zé)一個(gè)莊園的管理。shugo，字面意思是 "保護(hù)者"，根據(jù)當(dāng)?shù)氐牧?xí)俗和軍事法律作出決定，并且像jito一樣，他們?yōu)槟桓魇斩ㄆ趯?shí)物稅，其中一部分他們有權(quán)為自己保留。他們還負(fù)責(zé)為加冕儀式和寺廟建設(shè)等一次性活動征收特別稅，并為國家項(xiàng)目組織勞工，如在沿線修建道路和客棧。其他職責(zé)包括抓捕海盜，懲罰叛徒，以及召集戰(zhàn)士供國家使用——不僅在戰(zhàn)時(shí)，而且作為定期輪換制度的一部分，各省為首都平安京（京都）提供守衛(wèi)。 ?

Over time the position of shugo became, in effect, one of a regional governor. The shugo became ever more powerful, with taxes being directed into their own pockets and such rights as collecting the tansen often being given to subordinates as a way to create an alternative lord-vassal relationship without any land exchange being involved. The giving out of titles and organising private arrangements with samurai also allowed the shugo to build up their own personal armies. Following the failed Mongol invasions of Japan in 1274 and 1281 CE, shugo were legally obliged to reside in the province which they administered for greater state security, but whether this was always carried out in practice is unclear. By the 14th century CE, the shugo had also assumed the responsibilities of those jito who had not become daimyo, and by the 15th century CE, most shugo inherited the position.

? ? ? ? ? 隨著時(shí)間的推移，shugo的地位實(shí)際上變成了一個(gè)地區(qū)的總督。Shugo勢力變得越來越強(qiáng)大，稅收被直接納入他們自己的口袋，諸如收繳田賦等權(quán)利經(jīng)常交給他們的下屬，作為另一種領(lǐng)主-附庸關(guān)系的方式，而不涉及任何土地交換。發(fā)放爵位和組織與武士的私人安排，也使shugo能夠建立自己的私人軍隊(duì)。在公元1274年和1281年蒙古人入侵日本失敗后，為了加強(qiáng)國家安全，法律規(guī)定shugo必須居住在他們所管理的省份，但在實(shí)踐中是否是這樣做并不清楚。到了公元14世紀(jì)，shugo也承擔(dān)了那些沒有成為大名的jito的責(zé)任，到了公元15世紀(jì)，大多數(shù)shugo都繼承了這個(gè)職位。 ?

系統(tǒng) 的?缺陷

One of the problems for the jito and shugo was that their authority out in the provinces, far from the central government, often relied on the goodwill of the locals, and when the shogunate government was weak - as it often was - samurai warriors and ambitious landowners often ignored demands for taxes or even took matters into their own hands and overturned the established arrangements of lord and vassal to increase their own power and wealth.

? ? ? ? ? 對jito和shugo來說，他們面臨的問題之一是其在外省的權(quán)力。他們遠(yuǎn)離中央政府，往往依賴于當(dāng)?shù)厝?，而?dāng)幕府政府軟弱無力時(shí)，通常情況下，武士和野心勃勃的地主往往無視稅收要求，甚至自作主張，推翻既定的領(lǐng)主和附庸的安排，以增加自己的權(quán)力和財(cái)富。

An additional weakness in the system was that jito and shugo depended entirely on local sources for their income, not the central government and this meant that they often made entirely self-interested arrangements. Thus, the shogunate itself became a largely irrelevant and invisible institution at a local level. Farmers often made private deals with officials, giving, for example, a small parcel of land in exchange for a delay in payment of taxes or a negotiated percentage in order to pay their expected fees annually. As a consequence, the whole setup of land ownership in Japan became very complex indeed with multiple possible landowners for any stretch of land: private individuals (vassal and non-vassals), government officials, religious institutions, the shogunate, and the Crown.

? ? ? ? ? 這個(gè)系統(tǒng)的另一個(gè)弱點(diǎn)是，jito和shugo的收入完全依賴于地方，而不是中央政府，這意味著他們經(jīng)常做出完全有利于自己的安排。因此，幕府本身在地方上成了一個(gè)基本不相干的、看不見的機(jī)構(gòu)。農(nóng)民經(jīng)常與官員進(jìn)行私人交易，例如，以一小塊土地?fù)Q取延遲繳稅，或以協(xié)商的百分比來支付每年的預(yù)期費(fèi)用。因此，日本土地所有權(quán)的整個(gè)設(shè)置確實(shí)變得非常復(fù)雜，任何一片土地都可能有多個(gè)土地所有者：私人（諸侯和非諸侯）、政府官員、宗教機(jī)構(gòu)、幕府和皇室。

Yet another problem was that when jito inherited from their fathers there was often not enough money to make a living if the rights of income had to be distributed amongst several siblings. This situation led to many jito getting into debt as they mortgaged their right of income from a given estate. There were additional weaknesses to the feudal system as time wore on, too, namely the difficulty in finding new land and titles to award vassals in an era of stable government.

? ? ? ? ? 另一個(gè)問題是，當(dāng)jito繼承父親的遺產(chǎn)時(shí)，如果收入權(quán)必須在幾個(gè)兄弟姐妹之間分配，他們往往沒有足夠的錢來維持生計(jì)。這種情況導(dǎo)致許多jito負(fù)債累累，因?yàn)樗麄儼炎约簭奶囟ㄟz產(chǎn)中獲得的收入權(quán)抵押出去了。隨著時(shí)間的推移，封建制度也有更多的弱點(diǎn)，即在一個(gè)政府穩(wěn)定的時(shí)代，很難找到新的土地和所有權(quán)來授予諸侯。

In the Sengoku Period or Warring States Period (1467-1568 CE) Japan suffered from constant civil wars between the rival daimyo warlords with their own private armies who knew they could ignore the shugo and other officials of the government which was now impotent to enforce its will in the provinces. Land was also ending up in fewer and fewer hands as the daimyo with most military might swallowed up their smaller rivals. By the Edo Period (1603-1868 CE) there would be a mere 250 daimyo across the whole of Japan. The phenomenon of new rulers overthrowing the established order and of branch families taking the estates of the traditional major clans became known as gekokujo or 'those below overthrowing those above.'

? ? ? ? ? 在戰(zhàn)國時(shí)期（公元1467-1568年），日本飽受敵對的大名軍閥之間不斷的內(nèi)戰(zhàn)，他們擁有自己的私人軍隊(duì)，可以無視shugo和政府的其他官員，而政府現(xiàn)在已經(jīng)無力在各省執(zhí)行其意志了。隨著擁有最強(qiáng)大軍事力量的大名吞并他們?nèi)跣〉膶κ郑恋匾苍絹碓缴俚芈淙胝种?。到了江戶時(shí)代（公元1603-1868年），整個(gè)日本有250個(gè)大名。新的統(tǒng)治者推翻了既定的秩序，分支家族奪取了傳統(tǒng)大族的財(cái)產(chǎn)，這種現(xiàn)象被稱為gekokujo或 "下面的人推翻了上面的人"。

The consequence of this social and administrative upheaval was that Japan was no longer a unified state but had become a patchwork of feudal estates centred around individual castles and fortified mansions as loyalties became highly localised. Villages and small towns, largely abandoned by the government, were obliged to form their own councils (so) and leagues of mutual assistance (ikki). Not until Oda Nobunaga (1534-1582 CE), who defeated his rival warlords in the central part of the archipelago in the 1560s CE, did Japan begin to look like a unified country again.

? ? ? ? ? 這種社會和行政動蕩的后果是，日本不再是一個(gè)統(tǒng)一的國家，而是變成了一個(gè)以個(gè)別城堡和堅(jiān)固的宅邸為中心的封建莊園的組合，因?yàn)橹艺\度變得高度地方化。村莊和小城鎮(zhèn)在很大程度上被政府遺棄，他們不得不組建自己的委員會（so）和互助聯(lián)盟（ikki）。直到織田信長（公元1534-1582年）在公元1560年擊敗了群島中部的敵對軍閥，日本才又開始像一個(gè)統(tǒng)一的國家。

With the arrival of the much stronger Tokugawa Shogunate (1603-1868 CE) the daimyo were finally put in their place and severe restrictions imposed on them. These included a ban on moving their troops outside of their area and not being able to make political alliances in their own name, build more than one castle, or marry without the shogun's approval. The feudal system did, nevertheless, continue in the guise of samurai swearing loyalty to their particular daimyo up to the Meiji Period (1868-1912 CE), even if there was now a prolonged period of relative peace and military service was less needed than in medieval times.

? ? ? ? ? 隨著更強(qiáng)大的德川幕府（公元1603-1868年）的到來，大名們的勢力范圍終于被固定下來，幕府對他們施加了嚴(yán)格的限制。這些限制包括禁止將他們的軍隊(duì)調(diào)出他們的地區(qū)，不能以自己的名義結(jié)成政治聯(lián)盟，不能建造一個(gè)以上的城堡，也不能在未經(jīng)幕府將軍批準(zhǔn)的情況下結(jié)婚。盡管如此，封建制度仍然以武士對其特定大名宣誓效忠的名義繼續(xù)存在，直到明治時(shí)期（公元1868-1912年），即使現(xiàn)在有一個(gè)長期的相對和平時(shí)期，而且與中世紀(jì)相比，對軍事服務(wù)的需求也減少了。

From the 17th century CE, then, the Japanese feudal system was, instead of being a nation-wide pyramid structure of land distribution, largely one of local samurai warriors offering their services to a large estate owner or warlord in exchange for use of land, rice, or cash. It is for this reason that the bushido or samurai warrior code was developed which aimed to ensure samurai remained disciplined and loyal to their employers. Meanwhile, increasing urbanisation as people moved from rural life into the cities with their greater employment opportunities, and the ever-rising number of those involved in trade and commerce meant that the old feudal system was applicable to fewer and fewer people as Japan moved into the modern era.

? ? ? ? ? 從公元17世紀(jì)開始，日本的封建制度不再是一個(gè)全國性的土地分配的金字塔結(jié)構(gòu)，而主要是由當(dāng)?shù)匚涫肯虼笄f園主或軍閥提供服務(wù)，以換取土地、大米或現(xiàn)金的使用。正是這個(gè)原因，武士道或武士守則得以發(fā)展，其目的是確保武士紀(jì)律和對其雇主的忠誠。同時(shí)，隨著人們從農(nóng)村生活轉(zhuǎn)移到就業(yè)機(jī)會更多的城市，城市化程度不斷提高，參與貿(mào)易和商業(yè)的人數(shù)不斷增加，這意味著隨著日本進(jìn)入近現(xiàn)代，舊的封建制度逐漸消逝。