Chapter ONE——Language and Linguistics

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目錄

1-1——「語言與語言學(xué)」之Language

1-1-1術(shù)語背誦on language

1-1-2 The Definition of Language-廣度

1-1-3 The Design Feature of Language-廣度

1-1-4-1論述題on language-規(guī)范

1-1-4-2論述題on language-規(guī)范

1-2-1 Functions of language

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兩對概念的辨析題——langue&parole、competence&performance

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母題一——(09-北二外)How do you understand the distinction between langue and parole introduced by Saussure?

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標(biāo)答格式——(a)誰提出來的 (b)術(shù)語指的是什么 (c)Relationship or connection.

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(a) Saussure distinguished the linguistic competence of the speaker and the actual phenomena or data of linguistics(utterances) as LANGUE and PAROLE.[胡]

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(b) The former one refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community. And the latter one refers to the realization of langue in actual use.[共識]

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(c) Langue is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to abide by, and parole is the concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules. Langue is abstract; it is not the language people actually use. Parole is concrete; it refers to the naturally occurring language events. Langue is relatively stable, it does not change frequently; while parole varies from person to person, and from situation to situation.[戴]

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(c)’ Langue is storehouse filled by the members of a given community through their active use of speaking, a grammatical system that has a potential existence in each brain, or, more specifically, in the brains of a group of individuals. For langue is not complete in any speaker; it exists perfectly only within a collectivity.[胡]

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[辨正概念]——

(a) 索緒爾用「Langue」和「Parole」來區(qū)別說話者的語言能力和語言上(表達(dá))的實際表現(xiàn)或語料。Data of linguistics指的是語料庫的語料。

(c)’ 基礎(chǔ)認(rèn)知模型，其實從多種角度都可以理解的，我換個角度，大家知道「中心化」與「去中心化」嗎？以及「中央集權(quán)」與「地方專政」。大家理解「共性」與「個性」嗎？

應(yīng)該不難理解的，懂的自然懂，不懂可以留言互動討論。

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[記憶卡片]——

(c) 語言是使用者所遵循的，言語是使用者所應(yīng)用的。語言是抽象的，是相對穩(wěn)定的。言語是具體的，是根據(jù)個人情況而變化的。

(c)’ 語言是社區(qū)成員所共同享有的大儲藏室，成員積極調(diào)動它，積極使用存在于個人大腦的潛在的語法系統(tǒng)。準(zhǔn)確來說，說話者不能展現(xiàn)語言的全部，語言屬于社會存在，只存在于集體合。語言作為精神財富被共同享有，不存在于個人獨有。

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[論述技巧]——先把術(shù)語題標(biāo)答復(fù)制粘貼過來，一半分就有了。還有一半的分是原文關(guān)于定義的解釋，一步一個臺階。(c)(c)’二選一，根據(jù)目標(biāo)院校所定。

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[雜談]——我猜的，上述答案的(a)(b)默寫下來應(yīng)該會有70%-80%的分?jǐn)?shù)，所以，這分?jǐn)?shù)不是按字?jǐn)?shù)給的。反而像是突破滿分付出的努力比一半分?jǐn)?shù)的努力要高五倍往上，不知道大家能不能理解。其次，我不認(rèn)為人均能把(a)(b)(c)都默寫下來。語言學(xué)有十二章節(jié)，背的東西多了，不能為難自己。憑我的直覺，感覺上述答案(a)(b)默寫下來就已經(jīng)進(jìn)入前20%的行列了。

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母題二——(2013-北二外)Tell the reasons for the discrepancy between competence and performance in normal language users.

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(a) The discrepancy between competence and performance is drawn by Chomsy from the psychological aspect in his《Aspects of the Theory of Syntax》.

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(b) A language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules is called his linguistic competence. Performance refers to the actual use of language in concrete situations.

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(c) As a language user we all have intuitive grasp of the rules of language, and though we may not be able to state the rules explicitly, our performance demonstrates our adherence to them.[胡]

[辨證概念]——能懂不一定能用，他和系花聊天，小鹿亂撞，誠惶誠恐，急不擇言，說話都很磕巴，但我們不能說這人就不懂語言，也不能說他就沒能力去說話。

[記憶卡片]——對語言規(guī)則有天然的把握，雖說不一定能在表現(xiàn)中準(zhǔn)確表述，但Performance仍然遵循Competence。

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(c)’ Chomsky thinks that what linguists should study is the ideal speaker’s competence, not his performance which too haphazard(雜亂無序) to be studied. Although a speaker possesses an internalized set of rules and applies them in actual use, he can not tell exactly what these rule are. So the task of the linguistic is to discover and specify these rules.[戴]

[辨證概念]——這個，對于沒有上過學(xué)的老一輩來說，最明顯，能說不一定能懂語法。

[記憶卡片]——雖說有一系列內(nèi)化的規(guī)則，以及去應(yīng)用它們，但說話者不一定能準(zhǔn)確來說語法是什么。

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(2011-武大)A distinction can be drawn between Competence and Performance in the study of language. What do they refer to? Why does Chomsy draw such a distinction?

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把母題二答案的(a)(b)(c)(c)’抄上去就行，就快滿分了。

然后，你再扯一扯，“因pressure,distress,anxiety or embarrassment導(dǎo)致Performance不佳，Slips of the tongue, false grammar, unnecessary pauses，但不意味著不懂語言，我們?nèi)匀挥蠧ompetence”，象征性扣半分，壓分都壓不住，直接王冠給你戴，導(dǎo)師任你隨便選！

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[雜談]——像論述題，尤其是20-30分的大題，標(biāo)準(zhǔn)化術(shù)語答完之后，如果還有時間，就按照自己的理解，象征性扯上幾句。我感覺，除了有英語垂直細(xì)分的八大外院或部分985,211以外，能考MA(尤其是語言學(xué))，應(yīng)該具備基本的MTI水平，不然就別考了，沒優(yōu)勢。自己看著來，量力而行。

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How is Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole similar to Chomsky’s distinction between competence and performance?

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先把母題一二的(a)(b)分別寫下來，壓線分先拿到。

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然后這個點是[戴]這本書詳細(xì)說過的，它的區(qū)別就是that Saussure took a sociological view of language and his notion of language is a matter of social conventions, and Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual.

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一個是人與社會關(guān)系的社會學(xué)層面，一個是個人的心理學(xué)層面。

[辨證概念]——就是「有」與「使用」的哲學(xué)關(guān)系，哈哈，我有愛人的能力，但不意味著我就愛著誰，前者決定后者。

區(qū)別就是一個宏大敘事的社會層面，社區(qū)人們共同享有的精神財富(langue)，再具體到個人的使用情況(parole)。再具體到個人從精神財富中得到的能力(competence)，再具體到個人的具體使用情況(performance)。

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關(guān)于語言的論述題

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關(guān)于語言的論述題，兩個方向的答題點，(a)語言的定義-人類、口頭、任意、符號、系統(tǒng) (b)語言的區(qū)別性特征-任意性、雙重性、創(chuàng)造性、位移性等。

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母題三——What’s your understanding of language?

母題三’——What characteristics of language do you think should be included in a good, comprehensive definition of language?

關(guān)于語言的定義，術(shù)語默寫下來?。?！然后還有具體解釋名詞及例句也需要背！

(a) Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. This definition has captured the main features of language, i.e. human-specific、vocal、arbitrary、symbolic、systematic.

(b) Human-specific——Language is different from the communication systems of other forms of life possess, e.g. bird songs, bee dances, animal cries.[戴]

(c) Vocal——The primary medium is sound for all languages; writing system came much later than spoken form.[戴]

(d) Arbitrary——it refers to the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning, e.g. “pen” by any other name is the thing we use to write with[戴]

(e) Symbolic——Word are associated with objects, actions and ideas by convention. “A rose by any other name would smell as sweet”——Shakespeare.[戴]

(f) Systematic——Language is rule-governed; elements in it are arranged according to certain rules and can’t be combined at will, e.g. bkli, I apple eat, are incorrect.[戴]

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[雜談]——一般來說，純考外應(yīng)語言學(xué)，[戴][胡]兩本書必須都要看的，除了考綜合卷(英美文學(xué)、語言學(xué)、文化交際、英語國家概況)。綜合卷，相對來說，語言學(xué)占的分值低，相對來說就指定一本主書，但如果純考外應(yīng)語言學(xué)，指定[戴]、[胡]兩本書，哪怕[戴]提到而[胡]沒提到，只要是重點，就需要背。

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In what way do we say language is arbitrary?

(a) Arbitrariness refers to that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds, and the form of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.

(b) E.g. “pen” by any other name is the thing we use to write with. “A rose by any other name would smell as sweet.”——Shakespeare.

[辨證概念]——我不知道大家能不能看出我的思路，這也是星火給的標(biāo)答。我說過，[戴]和[胡]對任意性的側(cè)重點不一樣，一個是聲音與所指物的任意性，一個是符號與所指物的任意性，那兩個概念整合到一起，再分別舉例子就行。

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Why do we say language is primarily vocal?

Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. VOCAL is one of the main features of language by this definition.

The primary medium is sound for all languages; writing system came much later than spoken form.

然后順帶扯兩句，扯兩句——其實我說這話的意思是指，我看標(biāo)答加了一部分不知道哪里來的話術(shù)，然后咱肯定不想背呀，就過線分拿到再根據(jù)理解扯幾句心得，舉個例子就行。

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關(guān)于語言區(qū)別性特征的論述題

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母題四——(2010北航)What makes language unique to human beings?

母題四’——What are the main features of human language that have been specified to show that it is essentially different from animal communication system?

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語言的區(qū)別性特征-任意性、雙重性、創(chuàng)造性、位移性等。把1-1-1術(shù)語，默寫一遍?。?！

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(a) The features that define our human languages as distinctive from languages used by other species can be called DESIGN FEATURES.

(b) Arbitrariness refers to that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds, and the form of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to?their meaning.

(c) Duality refers to the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level, and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.

(d) By creativity, we mean language is resourceful because of its duality and itself recursiveness.

(e) Displacement means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present, in time and space, at the moment of communication.

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如果所考院校指定[戴]版本，就再把「cultural transmission」默寫下來。(a)(b)(c)(d)(e)默寫下來就已經(jīng)很厲害啦，不辜負(fù)努力時光，量力而行，加油。

如果是大題了，會者不難，前面選填判斷基本白給，時間肯定很充足，然后，論述大題需要寫寫動物沒有上述的特征，你記得1-1-3筆記拿出來看看?。?！

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母題五——What kind of evidence supports the idea that language is culturally transmitted?

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(a) Cultural transmission[戴]——we were all born with the ability to acquire language, the details of any language system are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned.

(b) An English speaker and a Chinese speaker are both able to use a language, but they are not mutually intelligible.

(b)’ A Chinese baby born and brought up in London by an English family will speak English, while an English child brought up in Beijing by a Chinese aunt will speak Chinese.

(c) It is passed on from one generation to the next through teaching and learning, rather than by instinct.

(d) 您展示才華區(qū)！

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母題六——Why do people take duality as one of the important design features of human language? Can you tell us what language will be if it has no such design feature? 【提前轉(zhuǎn)變下思路，如果沒有這個特征=默寫這個特征的好處優(yōu)勢，再否定！】

母題六'——How do you understand “duality”, a design feature of language?

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(a) Duality——It refers to the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level, and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.

(b) Roughly speaking, the elements of the spoken language are sounds which do not convey meaning in themselves. The only function of sounds is to combine with one another to form units that have meaning, such as words.[胡]話語的組成元素是本身不傳達(dá)意義的語音，語音的唯一作用就是相互組合構(gòu)成有意義的單位。

(c) Stratification(分層) of Duality——this organization of levels on levels——is the physical manifestation(具體體現(xiàn)) of the“infinite use of finite means，”the trait(特性) that most distinguishes human communication and that provides itself tremendous resourceful.[胡]

(d) We can perceive the advantage of DUALITY, which lies in the great productive power our language is endowed with(被賦予的). A large number of different units can be formed out of a small number of elements(大量的單位由很少數(shù)量的成分構(gòu)成)——for instance, a considerable number of words out of a small set of sounds, around 48(48個音素) in the case of(就…而言) the English language. And out of the huge number of words, there can be endless number of sentences, which in turn can form unlimited number of texts.

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然后，

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材料綜合題

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累成狗，下次再更- -?。。?/p>

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