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【簡譯】江戶時代（Edo Period）

2023-02-27 11:10 作者:神尾智代 0人讀過 | 我要投稿

上一時代

The Edo period refers to the years from 1603 until 1868 when the Tokugawa family ruled Japan. The era is named after the city of Edo, modern-day Tokyo, where the Tokugawa shogunate had its government. It is also sometimes referred to as the early modern period because it was at this time that many of the characteristics of modern Japanese society were formed.

? ? ? ? ? 江戶時代是指德川家族統(tǒng)治日本的 1603 年至 1868 年之間的時代。這個時代是以江戶市（即今天的東京）命名的，德川幕府在這里建立了政府。它有時也被稱為近代早期，因為現(xiàn)代日本社會的許多特征就是在這個時期形成的。

政治架構(gòu)

In 1600, Tokugawa Ieyasu (1543-1616) led a coalition of daimyo from eastern Japan to victory against a similar coalition of daimyo from western Japan at the Battle of Sekigahara. This battle brought an end to the prolonged period of civil war Japan had experienced in the preceding 140 years. In 1603, following the precedent of Minamoto no Yoritomo (1147-1199), Ieyasu had the emperor appoint him as shogun. The imperial family had no real power at this time, but it did have the capacity to confer political legitimacy through such titles. Using this appointment, Ieyasu created his own military government, which in Japanese is called a bakufu. While the Tokugawa were the single most powerful warrior family, Ieyasu lacked either the strength or desire to destroy all the other warrior families and create a centralised state. Instead, he put in place a system in which local daimyo were largely left in control of their own territory in exchange for recognising Tokugawa rule at a national level.

? ? ? ? ? 1600年，德川家康（1543-1616）率領(lǐng)日本東部的大名聯(lián)盟，在關(guān)原之戰(zhàn)中戰(zhàn)勝了日本西部類似的大名聯(lián)盟。此戰(zhàn)結(jié)束了日本近一個半世紀以來長期內(nèi)戰(zhàn)的狀態(tài)。1603年，按照源賴朝（1147-1199）的先例，德川家康讓天皇任命他為幕府將軍。這時的皇室沒有實權(quán)，但它確實有能力通過這種頭銜賦予政治合法性。利用這一任命，德川家康創(chuàng)建了自己的軍事政府，在日本被稱為幕府。雖然德川家族是最強大的武士家族，但家康缺乏摧毀其他家族和建立中央集權(quán)國家的力量和野心。相反，他建立了一個制度，讓地方大名在很大程度上控制自己的領(lǐng)土，以換取對德川幕府在全國范圍內(nèi)的統(tǒng)治的承認。

The Tokugawa controlled about 30 per cent of the land in Japan, and the rest was in the hands of about 270 daimyo families. Ieyasu divided these into three groups:

daimyo sankei – collateral branches of the Tokugawa family

daimyo fudai – who had sworn allegiance to Ieyasu before the Battle of Sekigahara

daimyo tozama – who had only sworn allegiance to Ieyasu after the Battle of Sekigahara

德川家族控制著日本大約30%的土地，其余的土地在大約270個大名家族手中。德川家康將這些家族分為三類。

? ? ?親藩大名——德川家族的旁系分支

? ? ?譜代大名——在關(guān)原之戰(zhàn)前宣誓效忠于家康的人

? ? ?外樣大名——關(guān)原之戰(zhàn)后才向家康宣誓效忠的人

The land controlled by these daimyo was called a han. The size of a han was measured, not in land area, but in the amount of rice it could produce in a unit called a koku. The fudai daimyo were more trusted, and their han, which tended to be relatively small, were located in key strategic locations in central Japan. The han of the less-trusted tozama daimyo were much larger but located far from the centre of Japan.

? ? ? ? ? 這些大名所控制的土地被稱為藩。藩的大小不是以土地面積來衡量的，而是以它能生產(chǎn)的大米數(shù)量為單位，稱為“石”（一石=十斗）。親藩大名更受信任，他們的藩國往往相對較小，位于日本中部的關(guān)鍵戰(zhàn)略位置。不太受信任的外樣大名的藩國則大得多，但卻遠離日本中心。

The Tokugawa put in place a whole series of measures to control the daimyo. For example, edicts were issued restricting the size of daimyo armies; they were only allowed to have one castle in their territory, and they were not allowed to repair fortifications without approval. The Tokugawa built a large Castle in Edo, and from the 1630s, daimyo were required to spend alternate years living in Edo and in their own territories. Their families had to stay in Edo permanently where they were, in effect, hostages.

? ? ? ? ? 德川家族制定了一系列的措施來控制大名。例如，頒布了限制大名軍隊規(guī)模的詔書；他們只允許在其領(lǐng)土上擁有一座城堡，而且未經(jīng)批準，他們不得修理防御工事。德川在江戶建造了一座大型城堡，從16世紀30年代開始，大名們被要求在江戶和他們自己的領(lǐng)土上交替居住一年。他們的家人必須長期呆在江戶，實際上是人質(zhì)。

As part of its system of social control, the Tokugawa also created a four-tier hereditary class system. Warriors, who made up about 7% of the population, were at the top, followed by farmers, artisans, and merchants. One goal of this system was to reduce the level of violence in society by restricting the number of people who had access to weapons. The circumstances in which warriors could engage in violence were also restricted. One more measure the Tokugawa took was to restrict contact between Japan and foreign countries. Europeans had come to Japan in the 16th century in order to engage in trade and spread Christianity. The Tokugawa feared that they might provide support for rebellious daimyo, so they banned Christianity and expelled all Europeans except the Dutch who were allowed to trade in the port of Nagasaki.

? ? ? ? ? 作為其社會控制體系的一部分，德川幕府還建立了一個四級世襲階級體系。占人口約7%的武士處于最高地位，其次是農(nóng)民、工匠和商人。這一制度的目標之一是通過限制能夠獲得武器的人數(shù)來減少社會中的暴力程度。戰(zhàn)士們可以從事暴力活動的情況也受到限制。德川幕府采取的另一項措施是限制日本與外國的接觸。歐洲人在16世紀來到日本，從事貿(mào)易和傳播基督教。德川擔心他們可能為反叛的大名提供支持，因此幕府宣布基督教為非法，驅(qū)逐了除荷蘭人以外的所有歐洲人，荷蘭人獲得了在長崎港進行貿(mào)易的特權(quán)。

Historians call the political structure created by the Tokugawa the baku-han system because it was made up of the bakufu and the han. It is sometimes described as a form of feudalism in medieval Japan, but this suggests that it was similar to the political system in Europe in the Middle Ages, which was not the case at all.

? ? ? ? ? ?歷史學家把德川幕府創(chuàng)造的政治結(jié)構(gòu)稱為幕藩制度，因為它是由幕府和藩國組成的。它有時被描述為中世紀日本的一種封建主義形式，盡管這絕不是正確的，因為中世紀的歐洲封建主義與日本的社會政治制度無關(guān)。

經(jīng)濟增長階段

In the period from 1600 to 1720, the population of Japan roughly doubled from 15 million to 30 million. This rapid increase was possible because, whatever shortcomings the Tokugawa political system may have had, it brought peace after many years of civil war. Freed from the depravations of rampaging armies, farmers were able to put more effort into feeding themselves and their families.

? ? ? ? ? 在1600年至1720年期間，日本的人口大約翻了一番，從1500萬增至3000萬。這種快速增長是可能的，因為不管德川政治制度有什么缺點，但在經(jīng)歷了多年內(nèi)戰(zhàn)之后，給日本帶來了和平。擺脫了橫行霸道的軍隊的蹂躪，農(nóng)民能夠把更多的精力放在養(yǎng)活自己和家人上。

Daimyo also had considerable incentive to increase the productivity of their land. While the Tokugawa did not directly tax daimyo income, they did impose various kinds of financial burdens on them. The most onerous of these were the costs involved in the alternate attendance system that could consume up to 40% of their income. As a consequence, daimyo were frequently short of money. There were two ways this problem could be alleviated. One was to try and extract more tax from the farming population. This was often attempted, but farmers had a variety of ways of resisting this. A more successful method was to try and increase the overall productivity of their territory. To this end, some daimyo encouraged the opening up of new agricultural land, the development of irrigation, the use of improved farming methods and the production of cash crops such as cotton and silk, wax, paper, and salt, which could be sold outside their territory. This led to the growth of trade at local, regional and national levels and the emergence of a commercial economy.

? ? ? ? ? 大名也有相當大的動力來提高其土地的生產(chǎn)力。雖然德川沒有對大名的收入直接征稅，但他們確實對他們施加了各種財政負擔。其中最繁重的是輪流出勤制度所涉及的費用，可能會消耗他們收入的40%。因此，大名經(jīng)常缺錢。有兩種方法可以緩解這個問題。一個是嘗試從農(nóng)業(yè)人口中征收更多的稅。這經(jīng)常被嘗試，但農(nóng)民有各種方法來抵制。一個更成功的方法是試圖提高其領(lǐng)土的整體生產(chǎn)力。為此，一些大名鼓勵開辟新的農(nóng)田，發(fā)展灌溉，使用改進的耕作方法和生產(chǎn)經(jīng)濟作物，如棉花和絲綢、蠟、紙和鹽，這些都可以在其領(lǐng)土之外出售。這導致了地方、區(qū)域和國家層面貿(mào)易的增長，以及商業(yè)經(jīng)濟的出現(xiàn)。

葛飾北齋（Katsushika Hokusai，1760-1849 年）創(chuàng)作的浪人攻擊吉良宅邸的正門

一種新的城市文化

The expansion of population and trade led to greater urbanisation. At a regional level, towns developed around local castles. The size of the castle depended on the wealth of the local daimyo. Some were small but others, like Himeji Castle, were huge. The warrior population was encouraged to live in these towns where they worked on the various administrative tasks necessary to run the local government. Gradually these warriors changed from a class of fighters to civil administrators.

? ? ? ? ? 人口和貿(mào)易的擴張導致進一步的城市化。在區(qū)域?qū)用?，城市圍繞當?shù)爻潜ぐl(fā)展。城堡的大小取決于當?shù)卮竺呢敻?。有些相當小，有些則很大，比如姬路城。戰(zhàn)士們被鼓勵居住在這些城鎮(zhèn)中，他們在那里從事各種必要的行政工作，以管理當?shù)厥挛?。漸漸地，這些武士從一個戰(zhàn)士變成了民事行政人員。

The warrior class required various kinds of products and services so artisans and merchants were also drawn to the towns that were divided up into different sections according to the class system. In towns like Hagi and Kanazawa, parts of these Edo period districts have survived to the present day where they are popular tourist attractions. At a national level, Edo, Osaka and Kyoto developed as very large cities. By the end of the 17th century CE, Edo had a population of more than one million people and was the largest city in the world. Warriors made up a high proportion of the population in Edo because it was the political centre of Japan. In contrast, Osaka developed as the major commercial centre in western Japan, and it came to be dominated by merchants. With the imperial family living there, Kyoto remained the capital of Japan, and it was known for its aristocratic high culture.

? ? ? ? ? ?武士階級需要各種類型的產(chǎn)品和服務(wù)，因此工匠和商人也被吸引到根據(jù)階級制度劃分為不同區(qū)域的城鎮(zhèn)。在萩市和金澤等城鎮(zhèn)，這些地區(qū)的一部分從江戶時代幸存至今，成為受歡迎的旅游景點。在國家層面上，江戶、大阪和京都發(fā)展成為大城市。到公元17世紀末，江戶的人口超過了100萬，是世界上最大的城市。由于江戶是日本的政治中心，武士在江戶的人口中占了很大比例。相比之下，大阪作為日本西部的主要商業(yè)中心而發(fā)展，它開始被商人所支配。由于皇室居住在那里，京都仍然是日本的首都，并以其貴族的高級文化而聞名。

In the second half of the 17th century, new forms of culture developed in these cities that reflected the lives of ordinary people. In the Edo period, prostitution was legal, but it was restricted to so-called 'pleasure quarters'. While the working conditions of women employed in these areas were terrible, they became the centre of a prosperous entertainment business. In Japanese, this was referred to as the ukiyo, which means 'floating world'. This was originally a Buddhist term meaning the 'fleeting world,' but it came to be used to refer to the prostitutes and their clients who frequented the pleasure quarters.

? ? ? ? ? 在17世紀下半葉，新的文化形式在這些城市發(fā)展起來，反映了普通人的生活。在江戶時代，賣淫是合法的，但它被限制在所謂的“游樂區(qū)”（紅燈區(qū)）。雖然在這些地方工作的婦女的工作條件很差，但她們卻成為了繁榮的娛樂業(yè)的中心。在日本，這被稱為 “浮世”，意思是“漂浮的世界”。這原本是一個佛教術(shù)語，意思是“轉(zhuǎn)瞬即逝的世界”，但后來被用來指代經(jīng)常光顧游樂區(qū)的妓女和她們的客戶。

Closely associated with this was the rise of two new forms of theatre: bunraku, which was a form of puppet theatre, and kabuki, which used actors. At this time the most famous playwright was a man called Chikamatsu Monzaemon (1653-1724), and through his plays we can gain an insight into what Japanese society was like at the time. Ihara Saikaku (1642-1693) wrote novels about the lives of the new urban class, and Matsuo Basho (1644-1694) developed haiku poetry into a refined art form. Hishikawa Moronobu (1618-94) vividly portrayed scenes from the 'floating world' in a new art form called ukiyo-e (pictures of the floating world).

? ? ? ? ? 與此密切相關(guān)的是兩種新的戲劇形式的興起：文樂和歌舞伎，前者是木偶戲的一種形式，后者則使用演員。這時，最著名的劇作家是一個叫近松門左衛(wèi)門（1653-1724）的人，通過他的劇本，我們可以深入了解當時的日本社會。井原西鶴（1642-1693）寫了關(guān)于新的城市階級生活的小說，而松尾芭蕉（1644-1694）將俳句詩發(fā)展成一種高雅的藝術(shù)形式。菱川師信（1618-94）以一種被稱為浮世繪的新藝術(shù)形式生動地描繪了“浮世”的場景。

新儒家思想（理學）的傳播

The 17th century was also a period of innovation in the intellectual world. Before 1600, Shinto and Buddhism were the dominant religions in Japan, but in the 17th century, Confucianism also became influential. Confucianism developed in China in the 5th century BCE, but at that time it was little more than a system of ethics related to how individuals and rulers should behave. After the spread of Buddhism to China from India in the 2nd century CE, however, Confucian intellectuals began to develop a much more sophisticated set of ideas. In the Song period (960-1279) thinkers like Zhu Xi (1130-1200) developed Neo-Confucianism, a comprehensive theory of the individual, society, and the universe.

? ? ? ? ? 17世紀也是知識界的一個創(chuàng)新時期。1600年以前，神道教和佛教是日本的主流宗教，但在17世紀，儒家思想也開始產(chǎn)生影響。儒家思想于公元前5世紀在中國發(fā)展起來，但在當時，它只不過是一個與個人和統(tǒng)治者應(yīng)如何行事有關(guān)的道德體系。然而，在公元2世紀佛教從印度傳播到中國后，儒家知識分子開始發(fā)展出一套更為復雜的思想。在宋代（960-1279年），像朱熹（1130-1200年）這樣的思想家發(fā)展了新儒家思想，這是一種關(guān)于個人、社會和宇宙的綜合理論。

One of the central ideas in Neo-Confucianism is that human nature is essentially good, but that goodness can be clouded by engagement with the world. To restore the original goodness, it is necessary for individuals to engage in self-cultivation. Some of the Neo-Confucian ideas were introduced to Japan in the Kamakura period (1185-1333) and then in the Muromachi period (1333-1573) along with new types of Buddhist thought. It was only in the early Edo period, however, that Neo-Confucianism developed as a separate school of thought distinct from Buddhism. Early Confucianists were treated with suspicion by the Japanese government because they were thought to be advocating some form of Christianity, which the Tokugawa had banned in the 1620s. Gradually, however, a class of independent scholars appeared that made a living by teaching Confucianism.

? ? ? ? ? 新儒家的核心思想之一是人性本善，但這種善會因與世界的互動而蒙上陰影。為了重建最初的善良，個人有必要致力于自我發(fā)展。一些新儒家思想在鐮倉時期（1185-1333）和室町時期（1333-1573）與新型佛教思想一起被引入日本。但是，理學真正成為獨立于佛教之外的學派，是在江戶初期。早期的儒家學者受到日本政府的懷疑，因為他們被認為主張某種形式的基督教，而德川幕府在16世紀20年代禁止了基督教。然而，漸漸地，出現(xiàn)了一批獨立的學者，他們通過教授儒家思想來謀生。

It was once thought that Confucianism was simply a conservative ideology that supported the hierarchical social order imposed on Japan by the Tokugawa. More recent research, however, has pointed out that this was not the case. In China, Confucianism was part of the state apparatus. In order to become a government official, it was necessary for people to pass the civil service examinations of imperial China based on an understanding of the Confucian classics taught in government-sponsored schools. Although, in reality, only those from the wealthy elite could achieve this, in theory, government appointments were based on merit.

? ? ? ? ? 人們一度認為，儒家思想只是一種保守的意識形態(tài)，支持德川幕府強加給日本的等級社會秩序。然而，最近的研究指出，情況并非如此。在中國，儒家思想是國家機器的一部分。為了成為一名政府官員，人們必須通過帝國中國的公務(wù)員考試，考試的基礎(chǔ)是對政府資助的學校所教授的儒家經(jīng)典的理解。雖然在現(xiàn)實中，只有那些富裕的精英階層才能做到這一點，但在理論上，政府的任命是基于功績的。

In Japan, however, the government was in the hands of a hereditary military aristocracy, and any suggestion that things should be otherwise was frowned upon. In this regard, one example of a scholar who got in trouble was Yamaga Soko (1622-1685). Yamaga was concerned by the fact that, since the coming of peace to Japan, warriors had lost their traditional role as fighters. He argued that, as the ruling class, warriors now had the obligation not only to govern but also to act as role models for other members of society. To do this, they should engage in self-cultivation in the fields of both military training and the literary arts. While Soko himself was banished from Edo for a time because some of his other ideas offended people in high places, other Confucian scholars like Ogyu Sorai (1666-1728) and Arai Hakuseki (1657-1725) were highly respected and become advisors to shoguns.

? ? ? ? ? ?另一方面，在日本，政府掌握在一個世襲的軍事貴族手中，任何批評的暗示都會遭到反對。在這方面，山鹿素行（1622-1685）就是一個陷入困境的學者的例子。山鹿素行對以下事實表示關(guān)切，即自從和平來到日本后，戰(zhàn)士們失去了他們作為戰(zhàn)士的傳統(tǒng)角色。他認為，作為統(tǒng)治階級，武士現(xiàn)在不僅有義務(wù)進行管理，而且還要為社會其他成員樹立榜樣。要做到這一點，他們應(yīng)該在軍事訓練和文學藝術(shù)領(lǐng)域進行自我修養(yǎng)。雖然山鹿素行本人因為他的一些其他思想冒犯了高層人士而一度被放逐出江戶，但其他儒家學者，如荻生徂徠（1666-1728）和新井白石（1657-1725）都受到高度尊重，并成為幕府的顧問。

For Japanese scholars, there was one aspect of Confucianism that was especially problematic. That is, in Confucian thought, China was regarded as the 'middle kingdom' and surrounding countries were thought of as being 'barbarian'. Some Japanese scholars accepted the idea that Japan was inferior to China, while others criticized it. Applying the techniques of textural analysis they had learnt from Confucianism itself to the study of ancient Japanese literature, the critics argued that Japan was actually superior to China. Some drew on Shinto ideas about the divinity of the imperial family while others argued that the true spirit of Confucianism had been lost in China but maintained in Japan. In Japanese, this kind of thought is called kokugaku (national learning) and it represented a form of early nationalism.

? ? ? ? ? 對于日本學者來說，儒學只有一個方面特別成問題。那就是，在儒家思想中，中國被認為是“中原”，而周邊國家被認為是“蠻夷”。一些日本學者接受了日本不如中國的觀點，而另一些學者則批評了這種觀點。批評者將他們從儒家思想中學到的文本分析技術(shù)應(yīng)用于日本古代文學的研究，認為日本實際上比中國優(yōu)越。一些人借鑒了神道教關(guān)于皇室的神性的思想，而另一些人則認為，儒家的真正精神在中國已經(jīng)喪失，但在日本卻得到了保存。在日語中，這種思想被稱為國學，它代表了早期民族主義的一種形式。

元祿赤穗事件

At the beginning of the 18th century, the Ako Incident took place in Edo, which symbolized how much Japanese society had changed during the 17th century. In 1701, the Lord of Ako (a domain in western Japan), Asano Naganori, attacked an official called Kira Yoshinaka within Edo Castle while preparing for a court ceremony. Kira was only slightly injured but disturbing the peace in this fashion was a capital offence. Asano was ordered to commit seppuku, which was the way warriors were executed at the time. His domain was also confiscated, and this meant his retainers became ronin or masterless warriors.

? ? ? ? ? 18世紀初，江戶發(fā)生了赤穗事件，這象征著日本社會在17世紀發(fā)生了很大的變化。1701年，赤穗（日本西部的一個領(lǐng)地）的領(lǐng)主淺野長矩，在江戶城內(nèi)襲擊了一位名叫吉良義央的官員，當時他正在準備一場宮廷儀式。吉良只受了輕傷，但以這種方式擾亂和平的行為是一種死刑。淺野被命令切腹，這是當時處決武士的方式。他的領(lǐng)地也被沒收，這意味著他的家臣成為浪人或無主武士。

47 of these ronin organized a secret plot against Kira because they believed he was responsible for the death of Asano. About two years later, they carried out a surprise attack on Kira's mansion and killed him. His severed head was taken to a nearby temple where Asano was buried. There the plotters waited until the authorities arrived. They were arrested, and after an investigation by government officials, they were also ordered to commit seppuku. This verdict was important because it shows that, despite the retainers demonstrating warrior-like loyalty towards their former lord, the government was not willing to tolerate random acts of violence.

? ? ? ? ? 這些浪人中的47人組織了一個針對吉良的秘密陰謀，因為他們認為他應(yīng)對淺野的死亡負責。大約兩年后，他們對吉良的宅邸進行了一次突然襲擊，并殺死了吉良。他被砍下的頭顱被帶到附近的一座寺廟，淺野被埋在那里。陰謀家們在那里等待著，直到當局到來。他們被逮捕，經(jīng)過政府官員的調(diào)查，他們也被命令切腹。這一判決很重要，因為它表明，盡管家臣們對他們的前領(lǐng)主表現(xiàn)出武士般的忠誠，但政府并不愿意容忍隨意的暴力行為。

德川時代的結(jié)束

From about 1720, the increase in population came to an end, and it stayed stable at around 30 million up until the end of the Edo period. Partly this was because people chose to have fewer children in order to maintain their standard of living. It also reflected the fact that, given the level of available technology, the human population had reached its ecological limits. Japan experienced numerous famines and other natural disasters that killed many people. This deteriorating economic situation began to put pressure on the Tokugawa political system at a time when a threat from overseas was on the horizon.

? ? ? ? ? 從1720年左右開始，人口增長告一段落，直到江戶時代結(jié)束，人口穩(wěn)定在3000萬左右。部分原因是人們選擇減少生育，以維持他們的生活水平。這也反映了一個事實，即鑒于現(xiàn)有的技術(shù)水平，人口已經(jīng)達到了生態(tài)極限。日本經(jīng)歷了許多饑荒和其他自然災害，導致許多人死亡。在海外的威脅即將來臨之際，這種不斷惡化的經(jīng)濟狀況開始對德川政治體系造成壓力。

In the early part of the Edo period, the bakufu had been able to expel most Europeans because the level of technology in Japan and Europe was similar. Throughout the Edo period, the government had required Dutch traders in Nagasaki to provide it with reports about conditions in the outside world. Also, in the 1720s, the eighth shogun Tokugawa Yoshimune relaxed rules about the importation of foreign books. The translation of these books led to the growth of Rangaku or 'Dutch Learning', which involved the study of European scientific ideas. For these reasons, despite the restrictions on contact with foreign countries, the government was not completely unaware of events taking place outside Japan. From the late 1700s, however, foreign ships began visiting Japan requesting that the country open up for trade. These overtures were all rebuffed.

? ? ? ? ? 江戶時代初期，幕府能夠驅(qū)逐大多數(shù)歐洲人，因為日本和歐洲的技術(shù)水平相似。在整個江戶時代，政府要求長崎的荷蘭商人向它提供有關(guān)外部世界狀況的報告。除此之外，在17世紀20年代，第八代幕府將軍德川吉宗放寬了對進口外國書籍的規(guī)定。這些書籍的翻譯導致了“蘭學”或“荷蘭學”的發(fā)展，它涉及到對歐洲科學思想的研究。由于這些原因，盡管對與外國的接觸有限制，但政府并不是完全不知道日本以外發(fā)生的事件。然而，從18世紀末開始，外國船只陸續(xù)抵達，要求開放日本通商，但均被拒絕。

From the late 18th century, England and other European countries began to experience the Industrial Revolution. The invention of the steam engine greatly enhanced production and also led to the development of railways and steam-powered ships. It also led to the production of improved weapons that gave Europeans a decisive advantage in warfare. In the 1840s, the British victory in the Opium War against China made Japan's leaders realise that the 'foreign barbarians' posed a real threat to Japan. In 1853, the American Mathew Perry (1794-1858) led a squadron of steam-powered ships armed with Industrial Age weapons to Japan and demanded that the country open up for trade. In the following year, the bakufu reluctantly signed an agreement with the US that partially lifted the restrictions on foreign visits. Another agreement was signed in 1858 that opened up more of the country, and this was followed by similar agreements with the United Kingdom, Russia, and France. The perceived weakness of the bakufu's response to the foreign threat made it vulnerable to a challenge from domestic opponents. This challenge was led by two of the largest tozama daimyo, Satsuma in Kyushu and Choshu in western Honshu.

? ? ? ? ? 從18世紀末開始，英國和其他歐洲國家開始經(jīng)歷工業(yè)革命。蒸汽機的發(fā)明極大地提高了生產(chǎn)，也導致了鐵路和蒸汽動力船舶的發(fā)展。它還促使武器的改進和生產(chǎn)，使歐洲人在戰(zhàn)爭中獲得了決定性的優(yōu)勢。19世紀40年代，英國在對華鴉片戰(zhàn)爭中的勝利使日本領(lǐng)導人意識到，“洋夷”對日本構(gòu)成了真正的威脅。1853年，美國人馬修·佩里（Mathew Perry）（1794-1858）率領(lǐng)一支裝備有工業(yè)時代武器的蒸汽動力船隊來到日本，要求日本開放貿(mào)易。第二年，幕府不情愿地與美國簽署了一項協(xié)議，部分解除了對外國訪問的限制。1858年簽署了另一項協(xié)議，開放了更多的地區(qū)，隨后又與英國、俄國和法國簽署了類似的協(xié)議。幕府對外國威脅的反應(yīng)被認為是軟弱的，這使它容易受到國內(nèi)反對者的挑戰(zhàn)。這一挑戰(zhàn)是由兩個最強大的外樣大名領(lǐng)導的，即九州的薩摩和本州西部的長州。

In theory, the bakufu governed Japan on behalf of the imperial family. This was a convenient political fiction for the Tokugawa in the early Edo period because it legitimised their rule. Basing their opinion on the study of Japanese history, however, critics began to argue that the Tokugawa had illegitimately usurped the authority of the imperial family and demanded that this be returned. They linked this demand to the threat from foreign countries through the slogan sonno joi, which means "revere the emperor, expel the barbarians." There were attacks on foreigners in both Choshu and Satsuma, but in response, European ships bombarded facilities in those two areas. This show of force demonstrated that trying to expel the barbarians was not practical, and so renewed efforts were put into overthrowing the bakufu. After a brief civil war, the last shogun Tokugawa Yoshinobu (1837-1913) decided to return his authority to the imperial court in an event known as the Meiji Restoration. In this way, the Tokugawa rule came to an end.

? ? ? ? ? 理論上，幕府代表皇室統(tǒng)治日本。在江戶時代早期，這對德川家來說是一種方便的政治虛構(gòu)，因為它使其統(tǒng)治合法化。然而，根據(jù)他們對日本歷史的研究，批評者開始爭辯說，德川家族非法篡奪了皇室的權(quán)力，并要求將其歸還。他們通過“尊王攘夷”（sonno joi）的口號將這一要求與來自外國的威脅聯(lián)系起來，sonno joi的意思是“尊從天皇，驅(qū)逐蠻人”。長州和薩摩都發(fā)生了對外國人的攻擊，但作為回應(yīng)，歐洲船只轟炸了這兩個地區(qū)的設(shè)施。這種武力的展示表明，試圖驅(qū)逐野蠻人是不切實際的，因此，人們重新努力推翻幕府。在短暫的內(nèi)戰(zhàn)之后，最后一位幕府將軍德川慶喜（1837-1913）決定將其權(quán)力交還給朝廷，這一事件被稱為明治維新。這樣一來，德川的統(tǒng)治就結(jié)束了。

In the decades after the end of the Second World War in 1945, historians in the English-speaking world tended to have a very negative attitude towards the Edo period. This was because they believed it was the source of the militarism that characterised Japanese society in the 1930s and 1940s. Following the success of Japan's post-war democracy and the rapid growth of its economy from the 1960s, however, this view has largely been revised. Today, while not denying its dark side, the Edo period is generally regarded positively as a time when Japanese society developed some of its most distinctive features.

? ? ? ? ? 在1945年第二次世界大戰(zhàn)結(jié)束后的幾十年里，英語世界的歷史學家往往對江戶時代持非常消極的態(tài)度。這是因為他們認為這是19世紀30年代和19世紀40年代日本社會軍國主義的根源。然而，隨著日本戰(zhàn)后民主制度的成功和19世紀60年代以來經(jīng)濟的快速增長，這種觀點在很大程度上得到了修正。今天，雖然江戶時代的陰暗面毋庸置疑，但人們普遍認為江戶時代是日本社會發(fā)展出一些最顯著特征的積極時期。