Chapter THREE——「Words and Morphology」

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3-1——「Words」

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3-1-1詞的識別與分類[非重點]

A.詞的三種含義[認識]

B.詞的穩(wěn)定性、相對連續(xù)性、最小自由形式[認識]

C.詞的分類[認識]

(C-a).變化詞與非變化詞[認識]

(C-b).語法詞與功能詞[認識]

(C-c).封閉類詞與開放類詞[選填判斷]

D.詞性[自行了解]

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3-1-2【名詞解釋】+【規(guī)范術(shù)語】！

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A.詞的三種含義

(1). Word is a physically definable unit.

詞是自然的有界限的單位。

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在書面形式上表現(xiàn)得尤為明顯，一個間隔一個詞！

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(2). Word is both a general term and a specific term.

詞既是一個普通的術(shù)語，又是專門的術(shù)語。

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[概念理解]——faster, write, fast, writes, writing, faster, written.

There are seven words, so each of them is a general term.

But, if we divide them into two groups, namely,

write, writes, writing, written;

fast, faster, fastest,

the original word is a specific term.

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所以，詞具有普通術(shù)語和專業(yè)術(shù)語的雙重特性！

[辨證概念]——The original word is the specific term, so is “writes” too?

詞具有普通術(shù)語和專業(yè)術(shù)語的雙重特性，這句話是沒問題！ “詞”是我們普遍認識的單詞，像“writes” “writing” “written”都是詞的變體。

?“writes”你覺得有雙重性就有，覺得沒有就沒有，應該沒有。但這個問題，純內(nèi)耗，沒意義！任何詞匯書沒有單拎出來的“writes”這個詞。

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(3). Word is a grammatical unit.

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A這一部分，在[胡-第三版]有，但[胡-第五版]就消失，[戴]壓根沒出現(xiàn)過，[星火]中涉及了這個考點，但目前沒有發(fā)現(xiàn)作為考題出現(xiàn)，可供參考！

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B. Identification of words, 準確的理解是“詞的性質(zhì)”。

(1).stability.

nothingness≠nessnothing; chairman≠manchiar; birds≠brds; clever≠clver.

詞非常穩(wěn)定，它不能重排、不能倒置、不能增刪變動任何一個字母。且錯誤的形式無意義，不能被接受。

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同時，就詞素而言，cept-, cip-, 元音變位，但“抓,拿,獲取”意思不變。

con-, com-, col-，輔音變化，“共同”意思不變。

就句子而言，可以重排、倒裝，“John is a clever boy.”＝“A clever boy John is.”

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所以，不難得到，詞是所有語言單位中最穩(wěn)定的[胡]。語言單位，即morpheme?word?phrase?clause?sentence.

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(2).Relative Uninterruptibilty.

相對連續(xù)性，就結(jié)構(gòu)來說，一個詞中間不能介入成分，你可以接前綴后綴，但中間你不能加東西。就發(fā)音和書寫來說，單詞不能有停頓。

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[標準術(shù)語]——Uninterruptibility means that new elements are not to be inserted into a word even when there are several parts in a word, and nor is one allowed to use pauses between the parts of a word.

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(3).a minimum free form.

詞是最小的自由形式，這句話是正確的。

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根據(jù)交流表達來確定的，

——Is Jane coming this evening?

——Possibly.

你最小能自由表達的形式就是一個詞。你不能嘴里蹦出來一個詞根或一個字母，除了特殊情況。

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然后，詞是能獨立構(gòu)成一個完整句子的最小單位。

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C. Classification of Words詞的分類

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In the light of variability, words can be divided into variable words and invariable words.

In terms of meaning expressed by words, they can be divided into grammatical words and lexical words.

In view of membership, words can be divided into close-class words and open-class words.

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(C-a).關(guān)于「Invariable Word」與「Variable word」

(1).我需要解釋一下，Invariable Words指的是不能發(fā)生曲折變化的一類詞。

你現(xiàn)在可以理解為，Invariable Words是不涉及單復數(shù),所有格或時態(tài)而變位的詞，即詞尾不能加詞綴“-s”, “-ing”, “-ed”, “’s/s’”。

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(2).像連詞(since, and, but, when)、介詞(of, over, with, through)、感嘆詞(hello, goodbye)、不能做動詞和名詞的大部分形容詞和副詞(seldom, sudden)等是Invariable Words。

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(3).你不能用【結(jié)尾是否能添加成分】來判斷，如果那樣子，“whenever”, “without”, “suddenly”, “overcome”, “throughout”就很傷心難過。

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(4).像單復數(shù)同形的名詞(fish, sleep)，形式上來說，作動詞是Variable Words; 且意義上來說，它存在有單復數(shù)變化的行為，所以是Variable Words.

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(C-b).

(5).連詞、介詞、冠詞、代詞、助動詞auxiliary是Grammatical Words, 又稱Funtional Words。名詞、動詞、形容詞和副詞是Lexical words，又叫Content Words。

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(6).詞匯詞主要指代物質(zhì)、動作和性質(zhì)的一類詞，承擔了主語的主要內(nèi)容。而語法詞負責把不同的內(nèi)容片段連接起來。

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(7-特-課外補充).Be可以是系動詞，起連接作用，應該屬于功能詞。但Be可以是實義動詞，即詞匯詞。have可以是助動詞，其連接作用，應屬于語法詞，也可以是實義動詞。一般而言，兼功能和詞匯的詞被定義為功能詞。

可以說，少部分語法詞有可以有詞匯詞的性質(zhì)。

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(8)[胡-第五版].While we always need to resort to content words to denote entities, properties and events, function words on the one hand help us express such meaning precisely, and on the other hand combine content words into grammatical sentences.

e.g.John bought the book yesterday;

John bought a book yesterday.

It is clear that these two articles “a, the”, both being function words, help add to the preciseness of the meaning expressed by content words.

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(9)[胡-第五版].In addition, function words play an essential role in producing a grammatical sentence that can involve many separate content words and phrases.

Ex. John knew that Mary was to be present at the conference.

In the above example, the content words, although contributing to the concrete meaning of the sentence, cannot form a grammatical sentence by themselves; instead, function words are needed to combine them.

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So, in this sense, we can say that function words are like glue that binds words and phrases together.

各有各的分工，共建美好句子。

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(C-c).

(10).封閉詞數(shù)目固定、數(shù)量有限。代詞、介詞、連詞、冠詞，屬于Close-class Word.

一般不輕易增加或衍生新的成員——[戴]舉了個例子，女權(quán)運動興起時，曾提議借鑒法語【-e陰性】，試圖通過“their, them”衍生出第二中性單三或陰性。但事實證明，沒得到普遍應用，很難的。

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(11).相比之下，開放詞的數(shù)目基本上無限的，隨著各種思想、新發(fā)明或者新發(fā)現(xiàn)的產(chǎn)生，詞典會不斷添加新詞。名詞、動詞、形容詞和副詞是Open-class Word.

e.g. “Beatnik”新添加到名詞中的一個詞，指垮掉的一代、排斥或避免傳統(tǒng)的人。和“the lost generation”, 有異曲同工之妙，對應著上世紀戰(zhàn)后美國青年人那一代。

再比如，“ungelivable”, 我小時候“不給力”這個詞在國內(nèi)挺流行的，而這個英語單詞應該借鑒了“unbelievable”.

還有，“glocal”, global+local=全球本土化，在全球化的浪潮中，為適應本土應運而生的一個詞。

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(12).[胡-第三版]補充說——實際上，靠詞性分類的Close-class和Open-class之間界限并不是涇渭分明的，也不是二元對立、非前即后的——比如像regarding, throughout, out of, according to, with regard to, in spite of, by means of等介詞詞組，原本相對開放的動詞，在此搭配介詞，整體當作介詞短語就表現(xiàn)得封閉。

至于，像助動詞、情態(tài)動詞，數(shù)量上來說，相對封閉。

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D. Part of Speech詞性

(13).建立了九個詞性，名詞noun、代詞pronoun、形容詞adjective、動詞verb、副詞adverb、介詞preposition、連詞conjunction、感嘆詞interjection和冠詞article.

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(14).新引進的有，助詞partical，包括“動詞不定式to”, “否定詞not”, 以及介詞短語中如get by, do up, look back中的by, up, back. 這個在英語中表現(xiàn)得不算太明顯，up我知道法語中【否定結(jié)構(gòu)ne…pas】【元音粘連詞-t-】等屬于助詞。

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(15)[胡-第三版].按傳統(tǒng)語法來講，代詞Pro-form是替代名詞結(jié)構(gòu)的詞。但實際上，代詞可以有代形容詞、代動詞、代副詞、代處所詞(代介詞短語引導的地點狀語)。

e.g. 代形容詞Pro-adjective: Your pen is red. So is mine.

代動詞Pro-verb: He knows English better than he did.

代副詞Pro-adverb: He hopes he’ll win and I hope so too.

代所處詞Pro-locative: Jame’s hiding there, behind the door.

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(16).限定詞determiner

Pre-determiners, Central determiners, Post-determiners

前+中+后位，不能錯位，且同類不兼容。

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When different sub-classes of determiners occur togethcr, they follow the order of pre-determiners + central determiners + post-determiners.

Thus we donot find exprcssions like “their all trouble”, “five the all boys”.

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Within each sub-class, the members are usually exclusive of each other.

So we do not have expressions like “the this boy”, “all both girls”.

再補充一個特例是，序數(shù)詞可以在基數(shù)詞前面，如in the first two days, another three weeks.

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然后，從[胡-第三版]到[胡-第五版]，這一部分刪改了很多內(nèi)容。高校的參考書目以最新的[胡-第五版]為參考書目，但[胡-第三版]我所列舉的內(nèi)容，我感覺有用，所以愿君明悉！

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Chapter THREE——「Words and Morphology」

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3-1——「Words」

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3-1-1詞的識別與分類[非重點]

A.詞的三種含義[認識]

B.詞的穩(wěn)定性、相對連續(xù)性、最小自由形式[認識]

C.詞的分類[認識]

(C-a).變化詞與非變化詞[認識]

(C-b).語法詞與功能詞[認識]

(C-c).封閉類詞與開放類詞[選填判斷]

D.詞性[自行了解]

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3-1-2【名詞解釋】+【規(guī)范術(shù)語】！

「Content Word/Lexical Word」and「Function Words/Grammatical Word」

「Clossd-class word」and「Open-class word」

「Variable word」and「Invariable word」

「The Classification of Word」and「Word Class/Part of Speech」

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「Content Word/Lexical Word」and「Function Words/Grammatical Word」

[星火]Grammatical Word refers to those which express grammatical meanings. The grammatical words serve to link different parts of a language together, so they are also called Function Words. Conjunctions, Prepositions, Articles and Pronouns are grammatical words.

[戴]Function Words are words which have little meaning on their own, but which show grammatical relationships in and between sentences.

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[記憶卡片]——1.little meaning on their 2.連接作用3.哪些詞性是功能詞？

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[星火]Lexical words refer to those which have lexical meanings, and mainly work for referring to substance, action and quality. The lexical words carry the main content of a language, so the lexical words are also called Content Words. Nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs are lexical words.

[戴]Content words are words which refer to a thing, quality, state, or action and which have meaning when the words are used alone. Content words are mainly nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs.

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[記憶卡片]——1.substance. entity, thing, action, quality, state, property, events and so on. 或者something, someone, somewhere and so on.??2.主要內(nèi)容??3.哪些詞性是詞匯詞？

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「Clossd-class Word」and「Open-class Word」

[胡+星火]The distinction of grammatical words and lexical words leads to the distinction of “closed-class” words and “open-class” words.

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A word that belongs to the CLOSED-CLASS is one whose membership is fixed or limited, such as pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, and others. One cannot easily add or deduce a new member.

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However, the OPEN-CLASS is one whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited. When new ideas, inventions, or discoveries emerge, new members are continually and constantly being added to the lexicon. Nouns, Verbs, Adjectives and many Adverbs are all open-class ltems.

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「Variable word」and「Invariable word」

[星火+胡]As for Varible Words, they may have inflective changes. That is, the same word may have different grammatical forms but part of the word remains relatively constant.

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[星火+胡]Invariable Words refer to those words such as “since”, “when”, “seldom”, “glocal” “through”, “hello”. They do not have inflective endings.?

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辨證概念——「The Classification of Word」and「Word Class/Part of Speech」

[胡-up改編]「The Classification of Word」

We can generalize some common features of words, and we can also find those commonality or difference among various words.

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[戴]「Word Class」refers to a group of words which are similar in function. Words are grouped into word class according to how they combine with other words, how they change their form, etc.

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[胡]A more practical way is to classify words either by analyzing their various grammatical, semantic, and phonological propertics, or by grouping them into word class according to their formal similarities, such as inflections and distribution. This is close to the notion of PARTS OF SPEECH in traditional grammar.

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這一部分，「Word Class」與「Part of Speech」在此屬于同等概念，不做區(qū)別。而「The Classification of Word」是分類學中的基本概念，而通過特定的科學分類法能得到詞性組。

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比如，are, have, yours, apple, beat, my, food, useful, in, without, badly ...

將單詞歸類是「The Classification of Word」，有很多種方法歸類，比如按陰陽性分類，按積極消極中性詞義歸類等等。其中，有一個方法，與功能語法相關(guān)的方法，把單詞歸類成了有不同詞性的詞。

至于具體是什么，書上寫得比較模糊，且有歧義。

詞性，應該是通過，一個詞在句子在的【等效替代】得到的——這一表述更好一些，僅作為了解。

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例題賞析——(2011-北航) Read the following paragraph and list all the function words, including all forms of be. Give the percentage of function words in this paragraph.

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She was a small woman, old and wrinkled. When she started washing for us, she was already past seventy. Most Jewish women of her age were sickly, weak, broken in body. But this washwoman, small and thin as she was, possessed a strength that came from generations of peasant ancestors. Mother would count out to her a bag of laundry that had accumulated over several weeks. She would lift the heavy bag,load it on her narrow shoulders, and carry it the long way home.

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代詞、介詞、冠詞、連詞、助動詞、be！不得不說考官真貼心把be給了，遮羞布，把【系動詞是否是功能詞】這個課本上不曾有過的設(shè)想給巧妙帶過去了。

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She was a small woman, old and wrinkled. When she started washing for us, she was already past seventy. Most Jewish women of her age were sickly, weak, broken in body. But this washwoman, small and thin as she was, possessed a strength that came from generations of peasant ancestors. Mother would count out to her a bag of laundry that had accumulated over several weeks. She would lift the heavy bag, load it on her narrow shoulders, and carry it the long way home.

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43?85≈51%

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易錯點在于she was already past seventy, 其中，past是介詞。

be+介詞短語，形式不算陌生，

比如：She is in red她穿著紅色的衣服。

John is at work他在上班。

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關(guān)于「Content word」and「Function words」，還有一段話比較重要，也需要背誦和默寫。

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[胡-第五版].

While we always need to resort to content words to denote entities, properties and events, function words on the one hand help us express such meaning more precisely, and on the other hand combine content words into grammatical sentences.

e.g.John bought the book yesterday;

John bought a book yesterday.

It is clear that these two articles “a, the”, both being function words, help add to the preciseness of the meaning expressed by content words.

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In addition, function words play an essential role in producing a grammatical sentence that can involve many separate content words and phrases.

Ex. John knew that Mary was to be present at the conference.

In the above example, the content words, although contributing to the concrete meaning of the sentence, cannot form a grammatical sentence by themselves; instead, function words are needed to combine them.

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So, in this sense, we can say that function words are like glue that binds words and phrases together.

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出題方式有——“為什么說功能詞像連接單詞的膠水？解釋并舉例說明?！?/span>

“請簡述實詞和功能詞的區(qū)別，并舉例說明。”??