The arrival in Europe of the printing press with moveable metal type in the 1450s CE was an event which had enormous and long-lasting consequences. The German printer Johannes Gutenberg (c. 1398-1468 CE) is widely credited with the innovation and he famously printed an edition of the Bible in 1456 CE. Beginning with religious works and textbooks, soon presses were churning out all manner of texts from Reformation pamphlets to romantic novels. The number of books greatly increased, their cost diminished and so more people read than ever before. Ideas were transmitted across Europe as scholars published their own works, commentaries on ancient texts, and criticism of each other. Authorities like the Catholic Church took exception to some books and censored or even burned them, but the public's attitude to books and reading was by then already changed forever.

? ? ? ? ? 公元1450年，帶有可移動金屬字體的印刷機傳入歐洲，這是一個具有巨大和持久影響的事件。德國印刷商約翰內(nèi)斯·古騰堡（約公元1398-1468年）被廣泛認為是這項創(chuàng)新的功臣，他在公元1456年印刷了一版《圣經(jīng)》。從宗教作品和教科書開始，很快印刷廠就開始生產(chǎn)各種文本——從宗教改革的小冊子到浪漫小說。書籍的數(shù)量大大增加，印刷成本降低，因此比以前有更多的人開始閱讀書籍。隨著學(xué)者們發(fā)表自己的作品、對古代文獻的評論以及相互之間的批評，思想在整個歐洲得到了傳播。天主教會等當局對一些書籍不以為然，對其進行審查甚至焚燒，但公眾對書籍和閱讀的態(tài)度在那時已經(jīng)發(fā)生了徹底的改變。

The impact of the printing press in Europe included:

1.?????? A huge increase in the volume of books produced compared to handmade works.

2.?????? An increase in the access to books in terms of physical availability and lower cost.

3.?????? More authors were published, including unknown writers.

4.?????? A successful author could now earn a living solely through writing.

5.?????? An increase in the use and standardisation of the vernacular as opposed to Latin in books.

6.?????? An increase in literacy rates.

7.?????? The rapid spread of ideas concerning religion, history, science, poetry, art, and daily life.

8.?????? An increase in the accuracy of ancient canonical texts.

9.?????? Movements could now be easily organised by leaders who had no physical contact with their followers.

10.?? The creation of public libraries.

11.?? The censorship of books by concerned authorities.

? ? ? ? ? 印刷機在歐洲的影響包括：

1.?????? 與手工作品相比，書籍的產(chǎn)量大幅增加。

2.?????? 從實物供應(yīng)和較低的成本來看，獲得書籍的機會增加了。

3.?????? 更多作者的書籍被出版，包括無名作家。

4.?????? 一個成功的作家現(xiàn)在可以完全通過寫作謀生。

5.?????? 相對于拉丁文，白話文在書籍中的使用和標準化程度有所提高。

6.?????? 識字率的提高。

7.?????? 有關(guān)宗教、歷史、科學(xué)、詩歌、藝術(shù)和日常生活的思想迅速傳播。

8.?????? 古代典籍的準確性提高。

9.?????? 現(xiàn)在，與追隨者沒有實際接觸的領(lǐng)導(dǎo)人可以很容易地組織起運動。

10.?? 公共圖書館的建立。

11.?? 有關(guān)當局對書籍的審查。

約 翰 內(nèi) 斯?·?古 騰 堡

The invention of the movable metal type printer in Europe is usually credited to the German printer Johannes Gutenberg. However, there are other claims, notably the Dutch printer Laurens Janszoon Coster (c. 1370-1440 CE) and two other early German printers, Johann Fust (c. 1400-1465 CE) and his son-in-law Peter Sch?ffer (c. 1425-1502 CE). There is, too, evidence that movable metal type printers had already been invented in Korea in 1234 CE in the Goryeo Kingdom (918-1392 CE). Chinese Buddhist scholars also printed religious works using moveable type presses; the earliest ones used woodblocks during the Song Dynasty (960-1279 CE). Whether the idea of moveable type presses spread via merchants and travellers from Asia to Europe or if the invention by Gutenberg was spontaneous is still a point of debate amongst scholars. In any case, like most technologies in history, the invention likely sprang from a cumulation of elements, ideas, and necessity involving multiple individuals across time and space.

? ? ? ? ? 在歐洲，金屬活字印刷機的發(fā)明通常歸功于德國印刷商約翰內(nèi)斯·古騰堡。然而，也有其他說法，是荷蘭印刷商勞倫斯·揚斯宗·科斯特（約公元1370-1440年）和其他兩位早期德國印刷商約翰·福斯特（約公元1400-1465年）和他的女婿彼得·舍費爾（約公元1425-1502年）。也有證據(jù)表明，在公元1234年的高麗王國（公元918-1392年）就已經(jīng)發(fā)明了金屬活字印刷機。中國的佛教學(xué)者也使用活字印刷機印刷宗教作品；最早的活字印刷機出現(xiàn)在中國的宋代（公元960-1279年）。活字印刷機的技術(shù)是通過商人和旅行者從亞洲傳播到歐洲，還是古騰堡自己發(fā)明的，這在學(xué)者中仍有爭議。無論如何，與歷史上的大多數(shù)技術(shù)一樣，這項發(fā)明很可能是由跨越時間和空間的多種因素、想法和必要性的累積而產(chǎn)生的。

Gutenberg began his printing experiments sometime in the 1440s CE, and he was able to establish his printing firm in Mainz in 1450 CE. Gutenberg's printer used Gothic script letters. Each letter was made on a metal block by engraving it into the base of a copper mould and then filling the mould with molten metal. Individual blocks were arranged in a frame to create a text and then covered in a viscous ink. Next, a sheet of paper, at that time made from old linen and rags, was mechanically pressed onto the metal blocks. Gutenberg's success in putting all these elements together is indicated by his printed edition of the Latin Bible in 1456 CE.

? ? ? ? ? 古騰堡在公元1440年的某個時候開始了他的印刷實驗。公元1450年，他在美因茨建立了自己的印刷廠。古騰堡的印刷機使用哥特式字母。每個字母都是在金屬塊上刻出來的，制造方法是把它刻在銅模的底部，然后用熔化的金屬填充銅模。各個字母塊被排列在一個框架中，形成一個文本，然后覆蓋在粘稠的墨水中。接下來，一張當時由舊亞麻布和破布制成的紙被機械地壓在金屬塊上。古騰堡成功地將所有元素結(jié)合在一起，這一點從他在公元1456年印刷的拉丁文圣經(jīng)中可以看出。

The new type of presses soon appeared elsewhere, notably with two Germans, Arnold Pannartz (d. 1476 CE) and Conrad Sweynheym (aka Schweinheim, d. 1477 CE). This pair established their printing press in 1465 CE in the Benedictine monastery of Subiaco. It was the first such press in Italy. Pannartz and Sweynheym moved their operation to Rome in 1467 CE and then Venice in 1469 CE, which already had a long experience of printing such things as playing cards. There were still some problems such as the lack of quality compared to handmade books and the drab presentation in respect to beautifully colour-illustrated manuscripts. Also, there were sometimes errors seen in the early printed editions and these mistakes were often then repeated in later editions. However, the revolution into how and what people read had well and truly begun.

? ? ? ? ? ?這種新型的印刷機很快就出現(xiàn)在其他地方，有兩個德國人，阿諾德·潘納茨（公元1476年）和康拉德·斯韋恩海姆（又名施魏因海姆，公元1477年）。這對夫婦于公元1465年在蘇比亞科的本篤會修道院建立了他們的印刷廠。這是意大利第一次使用這樣的印刷機。潘納茨和斯韋恩海姆于公元1467年將他們的業(yè)務(wù)轉(zhuǎn)移到羅馬，然后于公元1469年又轉(zhuǎn)移到威尼斯，威尼斯已經(jīng)有了印刷撲克牌等物件的長期經(jīng)驗。當時還存在一些問題，如與手工書相比，印刷機印刷的質(zhì)量不高；與精美的彩色插圖手稿相比，表現(xiàn)手法單調(diào)。此外，在早期的印刷版本中有時會出現(xiàn)錯誤，這些錯誤往往會在后來的版本中重復(fù)出現(xiàn)。然而，對人們閱讀方式和內(nèi)容的革命已經(jīng)真正開始。

印 刷 品

There was already a well-established demand for books from the clergy and the many new universities and grammar schools which had sprung up across Europe in the late medieval period. Indeed, traditional book-makers had struggled to keep up with demand in the first half of the 15th century CE, with quality often being compromised. This demand for religious material, in particular, was one of the main driving forces behind the invention of the printing press. Scholars had access to manuscripts in private and monastic libraries, but even they struggled to find copies of many texts, and they often had to travel far and wide to get access to them. Consequently, religious works and textbooks for study would dominate the printing presses throughout the 15th century CE. It is important to remember, though, that handmade books continued to be produced long after the printing press had arrived and, as with many new technologies, there were people still convinced that the flimsy printed book would never really catch on.

? ? ? ? ? 在中世紀晚期，神職人員與歐洲各地興起的許多新大學(xué)和文法學(xué)校對書籍的需求上升。事實上，在公元15世紀上半葉，傳統(tǒng)的制書商一直在努力跟上需求，但質(zhì)量經(jīng)常受到影響。尤其是社會對宗教書籍的需求，是推動印刷術(shù)發(fā)明的主要力量之一。學(xué)者們可以在私人圖書館和修道院圖書館獲得手稿，但即使他們也很難找到許多文本的副本，而且他們往往需要遠赴各地才能獲得這些文本。因此，宗教作品和學(xué)習(xí)用的教科書在整個公元15世紀的印刷廠中占據(jù)主導(dǎo)地位。不過，重要的是，在印刷術(shù)到來后的很長一段時間里，手工書仍在繼續(xù)生產(chǎn)，就像許多新技術(shù)一樣，有些人仍然相信脆弱的印刷書不會真正流行起來。

The availability of things to read for people in general massively increased thanks to printing. Previously, the opportunity to read anything at all was rather limited. Ordinary folks often had little more than church notice boards to read. The printing press offered all sorts of new and exciting possibilities such as informative pamphlets, travel guides, collections of poems, romantic novels, histories of art and architecture, cooking and medicinal recipes, maps, posters, cartoons, and sheet music. Books were still not as cheap as today in terms of price compared to income, but they were only around one-eighth of the price of a handmade book. With printing matter being varied and affordable, people who could not previously do so now had a real motive to read and so literacy rates increased. Further, printed books were themselves a catalyst for literacy as works were produced that could be used to teach people how to read and write. At the end of the medieval period still only 1 in 10 people at most were able to read extended texts. With the arrival of the printing press, this figure would never be as low again.

? ? ? ? ? 由于印刷機的出現(xiàn)，一般人可以閱讀的東西大量增加。在此之前，閱讀任何東西的機會都相當有限。普通人往往只有教堂的告示牌可以閱讀。印刷機提供了各種新穎的和令人興奮的可能性，如信息小冊子、旅行指南、詩集、浪漫小說、藝術(shù)和建筑史、烹飪和藥方、地圖、海報、漫畫和樂譜。與收入相比，書籍的價格仍然不像今天這樣便宜，但它們的價格只有手工書的八分之一左右。由于印刷品種類繁多且價格低廉，以前不能閱讀的人現(xiàn)在有了真正的動機去閱讀，因此識字率提高。此外，印刷書籍本身也是識字的催化劑，因為所生產(chǎn)的作品可以用來教人們?nèi)绾伍喿x和書寫。在中世紀末期，最多只有十分之一的人能夠閱讀擴展文本。隨著印刷機的到來，這個數(shù)字再也不會那么低了。

信 息 的 傳 播

Soon, a new boost to the quantity of printed material came with the rise of the humanist movement and its interest in reviving literature from ancient Greece and Rome. Two printers, in particular, profited from this new demand: the Frenchman Nicholas Jensen (1420-1480 CE) and the Italian Aldus Manutius (c. 1452-1515 CE). Jensen innovated with new typefaces in his printing shop in Venice, including the easy-to-read roman type (littera antiqua/lettera antica) and a Greek font which imitated manuscript texts. Jensen printed over 70 books in the 1470s CE, including Pliny's Natural History in 1472 CE. Some of these books had illustrations and decorations added by hand to recapture the quality of older, entirely handmade books.

? ? ? ? ? 很快，隨著人文主義運動的興起及其對復(fù)興古希臘和古羅馬文學(xué)的興趣，印刷品的數(shù)量得到了新的提升。有兩個印刷商尤其從這種新的需求中獲益：法國人尼古拉斯·延森（公元1420-1480年）和意大利人阿爾杜斯·馬努提斯（約公元1452-1515年）。延森在他位于威尼斯的印刷廠里進行了新字體的創(chuàng)新，包括易于閱讀的羅馬字體（littera antiqua/lettera antica）和模仿手稿文本的希臘字體。延森在公元1470年代印刷了70多本書，包括公元1472年的普林尼的《自然史》。其中一些書的插圖和裝飾是手工添加的，以重現(xiàn)古老的、完全手工制作的書籍的質(zhì)量。

Meanwhile Manutius, also operating in Venice, specialised in smaller pocket editions of classical texts and contemporary humanist authors. By 1515 CE, all major classical writers were available in print, most in multiple editions and many as collections of complete works. In addition, printed classical texts with identical multiple copies in the hands of scholars across Europe could now be easily checked for accuracy against source manuscripts. Handmade books had often perpetuated errors, omissions, and additions made by individual copyists over centuries, but now, gradually, definitive editions of classical works could be realised which were as close as possible to the ancient original. In short, printed works became both the cause and fruit of an international collective scholarship, a phenomenon which would reap rewards in many other areas from astronomy to zoology.

? ? ? ? ? ?同時，馬努提烏斯也在威尼斯經(jīng)營，專門生產(chǎn)古典文獻和當代人文主義作家的小型袖珍版本。到公元1515年，所有主要的古典作家都有了印刷品，大多數(shù)都有多個版本，許多都是完整作品的集合。此外，歐洲各地的學(xué)者手中都有相同的多本印刷品，現(xiàn)在可以很容易地對照原始手稿檢查其準確性。手工制作的書籍往往會延續(xù)幾個世紀以來個別抄寫者的錯誤、遺漏和補充，但現(xiàn)在，古典作品的最終版本可以逐漸實現(xiàn)，并盡可能地接近古代原作。簡而言之，印刷作品既是國際集體學(xué)術(shù)研究的原因，也是其成果，這一現(xiàn)象將在從天文學(xué)到動物學(xué)的許多其他領(lǐng)域獲得回報。

There was, too, a drive to print more books thanks to the Reformists who began to question the Catholic Church's interpretation of the Bible and its stranglehold on how Christians should think and worship. The Bible was one of the priorities to have translated into vernacular languages, for example German (1466 CE), Italian (1471 CE), Dutch (1477 CE), Catalan (1478 CE), and Czech (1488 CE). Reformists and humanists wrote commentaries on primary sources and argued with each other in print, thereby establishing an invisible web of knowledge and scholarship across Europe. Even the letters written between these scholars were published. As religious and academic issues raged, so the debating scholars fuelled the production of yet more printed works in a perpetuating cycle of the printed word. Ordinary folks, too, were roused by arguments presented in printed materials so that groups of like-minded individuals were able to quickly spread their ideas and organise mass movements across multiple cities such as during the German Peasants' War of 1525 CE.

? ? ? ? ? 由于改革派開始質(zhì)疑天主教會對《圣經(jīng)》的解釋及其對基督徒的思想和崇拜方式的束縛，也出現(xiàn)了印刷更多書籍的動力?！妒ソ?jīng)》是被翻譯成白話文的重點之一，例如德語（公元1466年）、意大利語（公元1471年）、荷蘭語（公元1477年）、加泰羅尼亞語（公元1478年）和捷克語（公元1488年）。改革派和人文主義者對原始資料撰寫評論，并通過印刷品相互爭論，從而在整個歐洲建立了一個無形的知識與學(xué)術(shù)網(wǎng)絡(luò)。甚至這些學(xué)者之間寫的信也被出版了。隨著宗教和學(xué)術(shù)問題的激化，爭論不休的學(xué)者們推動了更多印刷品的生產(chǎn)，使印刷品的周期不斷延長。普通人也被印刷品中的論點所喚醒，因此志同道合的群體能夠迅速傳播他們的思想，并在多個城市組織群眾運動，如公元1525年的德國農(nóng)民戰(zhàn)爭。

There were, too, plenty of works for non-scholars. As more people began to read, so more collections of poems, novellas, and romances were printed, establishing Europe-wide trends in literature. These secular works were often written in the vernacular and not the Latin scholars then preferred. Finally, many books included a number of woodcut engravings to illustrate the text. Collections of fine prints of famous paintings, sculptures, and frescoes became very popular and helped to spread ideas in art across countries so that a painter like Albrecht Dürer (1471-1528 CE) in Germany could see what Raphael (1483-1520 CE) was up to in Italy.

? ? ? ? ? 也有大量的作品供非學(xué)者閱讀。隨著越來越多的人開始閱讀，更多的詩集、小說和浪漫小說被印刷出來，建立了歐洲范圍內(nèi)的文學(xué)潮流。這些世俗作品往往是用白話文寫的，而不是當時學(xué)者們喜歡的拉丁文。最后，許多書籍都包括一些木刻版畫來說明文字。名畫、雕塑和壁畫的精美印刷品集變得非常流行，有助于在各國之間傳播藝術(shù)理念，因此，像阿爾布雷希特·丟勒（公元1471-1528年）這樣的德國畫家可以看到意大利的拉斐爾（公元1483-1520年）的作品。

蓬 勃 發(fā) 展 的 產(chǎn) 業(yè)

As a consequence of all this demand, those printers who had survived the difficult early years were now booming. Cities across Europe began to boast their own printing firms. Places like Venice, Paris, Rome, Florence, Milan, Basel, Frankfurt, and Valencia all had well-established trade connections (important to import paper and export the final product) and so they became excellent places to produce printed material. Some of these publishers are still around today, notably the Italian company Giunti. Each year, major cities were producing 2-3,000 books every year. In the first decade of the 1500s CE, it is estimated 2 million books were printed in Europe, up to 20 million by 1550 CE, and around 150 million by 1600 CE. There were over half a million works by the Reformist Martin Luther (1483-1546 CE) printed between 1516 and 1521 CE alone. Into the 16th century CE, even small towns now had their own printing press.

? ? ? ? ? 由于這些需求，那些在早期困難時期幸存下來的印刷商現(xiàn)在正在蓬勃發(fā)展。歐洲各地的城市開始夸耀自己的印刷公司。威尼斯、巴黎、羅馬、佛羅倫薩、米蘭、巴塞爾、法蘭克福和瓦倫西亞等地都有完善的貿(mào)易關(guān)系（對進口紙張和出口最終產(chǎn)品非常重要），因此它們成為生產(chǎn)印刷品的絕佳場所。其中一些出版商今天仍然存在，特別是意大利的Giunti公司。每年，主要城市都要生產(chǎn)2-3,000本書。在公元15世紀的頭十年，據(jù)估計歐洲印刷了200萬本書，到公元1550年達到2000萬本，到公元1600年約為1.5億本。僅在公元1516年至1521年期間，改革者馬丁·路德（公元1483-1546年）的作品就印刷了50多萬冊。進入公元16世紀，即使是小城鎮(zhèn)現(xiàn)在也有自己的印刷廠。

Besides established authors, many publishers helped new authors (men and women) print their works at a loss in the hope that a lucrative reprint run would finally bring in a profit. The typical print run for a first edition was around 1,000 copies although this depended on the quality of the book as editions ranged from rough paper pocket-sizes to large vellum (calfskin) folio editions for the connoisseur. The smaller size of most printed books compared to handmade volumes meant that habits of reading and storing books changed. Now a desk was no longer required to support large books and one could read anywhere. Similarly, books were no longer kept horizontally in chests but stacked vertically on shelves. There were even odd inventions like the book wheel on which several books could be kept open and easily consulted simultaneously by turning the wheel, especially useful for research scholars. As readers accumulated their books and built up impressive private collections, so many bequeathed these to their city when they died. In this way, within 50 years of the printing press' invention, public libraries were formed across Europe.

? ? ? ? ? 除了知名作者，許多出版商還幫助新作者（男性和女性）虧本印刷他們的作品，希望通過有利可圖的再版來最終獲得利潤。初版的印刷量一般在1000冊左右，但這取決于書的質(zhì)量，因為版本從粗糙的紙質(zhì)袖珍版到供鑒賞家使用的大型牛皮紙（小牛皮）版不等。與手工制作的書籍相比，大多數(shù)印刷書籍的尺寸較小，這意味著閱讀和儲存書籍的習(xí)慣發(fā)生了變化?，F(xiàn)在不再需要一張桌子來支撐書，人們可以在任何地方閱讀。同樣，書籍也不再被水平地放在箱子里，而是垂直地堆放在書架上。甚至還有一些奇怪的發(fā)明，如書輪，在書輪上可以打開幾本書，通過轉(zhuǎn)動書輪就可以同時查閱，這對研究學(xué)者特別有用。由于讀者積累了他們的書籍并建立了令人印象深刻的私人收藏，所以許多人在去世時將這些書遺贈給他們的城市。就這樣，在印刷術(shù)發(fā)明后的50年內(nèi)，整個歐洲都形成了公共圖書館。

Printed works became so common, they helped enormously to establish the reputations, fame and wealth of certain writers. The Dutch scholar Desiderius Erasmus (c. 1469-1536 CE) is perhaps the best example, one of the first authors to make a living solely through writing books. There were, though, some threats to authors and printers. One of the biggest problems was copyright infringement because it was next to impossible to control what went on beyond a particular city. Many books were copied and reprinted without permission, and the quality of these rip-offs was not always very good.

? ? ? ? ? 印刷品變得如此普遍，對某些作家的聲譽、名聲和財富的建立起到了極大的幫助。荷蘭學(xué)者伊拉斯謨（Desiderius Erasmus，約公元1469-1536年）也許是最好的例子，他是第一批只靠寫書謀生的作家之一。不過，作者和印刷商也受到了一些威脅。最大的問題之一是侵犯版權(quán)，因為幾乎不可能控制某個城市以外的情況。許多書未經(jīng)許可就被復(fù)制和重印，而這些翻版的質(zhì)量并不總是很好。

審 查 制 度 與 印 刷 禁 書

All of these developments were not welcomed by all people. The Catholic Church was particularly concerned that some printed books might lead people to doubt their local clergy or even turn away from the Church. Some of these works had been first released in manuscript form a century or more earlier but they were now enjoying a new wave of popularity thanks to printed versions. Some new works were more overtly dangerous such as those written by Reformists. For this reason, in the mid-16th century CE, lists were compiled of forbidden books. The first such list, the 1538 CE Italian Index of Prohibited Books, was issued by the Senate of Milan. The Papacy and other cities and states across Europe soon followed the practice where certain books could not be printed, read, or owned, and anyone caught doing so was, at least in theory, punished. Further measures included checking texts before they were published and the more careful issuing of licenses to printers.

? ? ? ? ? 這些發(fā)展并非受到所有人的歡迎。天主教會特別擔心，一些印刷書籍可能會導(dǎo)致人們懷疑他們當?shù)氐纳衤毴藛T，甚至背離教會。其中一些作品在一個多世紀前就以手稿形式首次發(fā)行，但由于印刷版本的出現(xiàn)，它們現(xiàn)在正享受著新一輪的流行。有些新作品的危險性更為明顯，如改革派所寫的作品。為此，在公元16世紀中葉，人們編制了被禁止的書籍清單。第一份這樣的名單，即公元1538年的《意大利禁書索引》，是由米蘭參議院發(fā)布的。教廷和歐洲其他城市和州很快效仿這種做法，禁止印刷、閱讀或擁有某些書籍，任何被發(fā)現(xiàn)這樣做的人至少在理論上都會受到懲罰。進一步的措施包括在出版前對文本進行檢查，以及更謹慎地向印刷商發(fā)放許可證。

Institutionalised censorship, then, became a lasting reality of publishing from the mid-16th century CE as rulers and authorities finally began to wake up to the influence of printed matter. Authorities banned certain works or even anything written by a particular author. The De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium (On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres, 1543 CE) by the Polish astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543 CE) was added to the forbidden list for putting the Sun at the centre of the solar system instead of the Earth. The Decameron (c. 1353 CE) by the Italian author Giovanni Boccaccio (1313-1375 CE) was added to the list because of its vulgarity. The works of Niccolò Machiavelli were added for his political cynicism.

? ? ? ? ? 隨著統(tǒng)治者和當局最終開始意識到印刷品的影響，制度化的審查制度從公元16世紀中期開始成為出版業(yè)的一個持久現(xiàn)實。當局禁止某些作品，甚至禁止某位作者的任何作品。波蘭天文學(xué)家尼古拉斯·哥白尼（Nicolaus Copernicus，公元1473-1543年）的De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium（論天體的旋轉(zhuǎn)，公元1543年）因?qū)⑻栔糜谔栂档闹行亩皇堑厍蚨涣腥虢麜麊巍Ｒ獯罄骷覇掏吣帷け≠で穑℅iovanni Boccaccio，公元1313-1375年）的《十日談》（約公元1353年）因其庸俗性而被列入名單。尼可洛·迪·貝爾納多·代·馬基維利的作品因其政治憤世嫉俗而被加入名單。

The worst works singled out for censorship were burned in public displays, the most infamous being the bonfire of the 'vanities' orchestrated by Girolamo Savonarola, a Florentine Dominican friar, in 1497 CE. On the other hand, some works were eventually allowed to be published (or republished) if they were appropriately edited or had offending parts removed. Most printers did not fight this development but simply printed more of what the authorities approved of. There was certainly, though, an underground market for banned books.

? ? ? ? ? 被挑出來審查的最糟糕的作品會被公開焚燒，最臭名昭著的是佛羅倫薩多米尼加修士吉羅拉莫·薩沃納羅拉在公元1497年策劃的 "虛榮 "篝火晚會。另一方面，一些作品最終被允許出版（或再版），如果它們經(jīng)過適當?shù)木庉嫽騽h除了違規(guī)的部分。大多數(shù)印刷商沒有與這一發(fā)展作斗爭，而只是更多地印刷當局批準的作品。不過，當然也有地下禁書市場。

Many intellectuals, too, were equally dismayed at the availability of certain texts to a wide and indiscriminate audience. The Divine Comedy (c. 1319 CE) by the Italian poet Dante Alighieri (1265-1321 CE) was thought by some to contain certain moral, philosophical, and scientific ideas too dangerous for non-scholars to contemplate. Similarly, some scholars lamented the challenge the vernacular language was posing to Latin, what they considered the proper form of the written word. The tide had turned already, though, and local vernaculars became more standardised thanks to editors trying to make their material more comprehensible to the greatest number of readers. An improved use of punctuation was another consequence of the printed word.

? ? ? ? ? 許多知識分子也同樣對某些文本被廣泛地、不加區(qū)別地提供給讀者感到失望。一些人認為，意大利詩人但丁·阿利吉耶里（公元1265-1321年）的《神曲》（約公元1319年）包含某些道德、哲學(xué)和科學(xué)思想，對非學(xué)者來說太危險了，令人無法思考。同樣，一些學(xué)者對白話文給拉丁文帶來的挑戰(zhàn)感到遺憾，他們認為拉丁文是書面文字的正確形式。不過，趨勢已經(jīng)發(fā)生了變化，由于編輯們努力使他們的材料更容易被最多的讀者理解，當?shù)氐陌自捨淖兊酶訕藴驶?。改進標點符號的使用是印刷文字發(fā)展的另一個結(jié)果。

Another delicate area was instruction books. Printers produced trade manuals on anything from architecture to pottery and here again, some people, especially guilds, were not so happy that detailed information on skilled crafts - the original 'trade secrets' - could be revealed to anyone with the money to buy a book. Finally, the printed word sometimes posed a challenge to oral traditions such as the professionals who recited songs, lyrical poetry, and folk tales. On the other hand, many authors and scholars transcribed these traditions into the printed form and so preserved them for future generations up to the present day and beyond.

? ? ? ? ? 另一個微妙的領(lǐng)域是指導(dǎo)書籍。印刷商制作了從建筑到陶器的貿(mào)易手冊，在這里，有些人，特別是行會，對關(guān)于熟練工藝的詳細信息——最初的 "商業(yè)秘密"——可以透露給任何有錢買書的人感到不高興。印刷品有時會對口述傳統(tǒng)構(gòu)成挑戰(zhàn)，如專業(yè)人士朗誦歌曲、抒情詩和民間故事。另一方面，許多作者和學(xué)者將這些傳統(tǒng)轉(zhuǎn)錄為印刷品，從而為后代保留了這些傳統(tǒng)，直到今天與未來。

參考書目：

Blockmans, Wim & Hoppenbrouwers, Peter. Introduction to Medieval Europe 300–1500. Routledge, 2017.

Campbell, Gordon. The Oxford Illustrated History of the Renaissance. Oxford University Press, 2019.

Eugene F. Rice Jr. & Anthony Grafton. The Foundations of Early Modern Europe, 1460-1559. W. W. Norton & Company, 1994.

Holmes, George. The Oxford History Of Medieval Europe. Oxford University Press, U.S.A., 2001.

J. R. Hale (ed). The Thames & Hudson Dictionary of the Italian Renaissance. Thames & Hudson Ltd, 1985.

Rundle, David. The Hutchinson Encyclopedia of the Renaissance. Hodder Arnold, 2000.

Wyatt, Michael. The Cambridge Companion to the Italian Renaissance. Cambridge University Press, 2014.

原文作者：Mark Cartwright

????????? 駐意大利的歷史作家。他的主要興趣包括陶瓷、建筑、世界神話和發(fā)現(xiàn)所有文明的共同思想。他擁有政治哲學(xué)碩士學(xué)位，是《世界歷史百科全書》的出版總監(jiān)。

原文網(wǎng)址：

https://www.worldhistory.org/article/1632/the-printing-revolution-in-renaissance-europe/