Previous philosophers ascribed many functions to the soul, but Descartes ascribed just one—thought. If we are machines, we are machines that learn. 唯物主義的兩個分支都把人的行為當(dāng)成機(jī)器，一個是大腦機(jī)器一個是被經(jīng)驗驅(qū)動的機(jī)器 As an illustration, Kant referred to a child’s learning of language. The specific words and grammar that the child acquires are a posteriori knowledge, but the child’s ability to learn a language depends on a priori knowledge. The latter includes built-in rules about what to attend to and how to store and organize the linguistic sounds that are heard, in ways that allow the child eventually to make sense of the sounds. Kant also argued that to make sense of the physical world, the child must already have certain fundamental physical concepts, such as the concepts of space and time, built into his or her mind Kant understood that the human mind has some innate furnishings, but he had no scientific explanation of how those furnishings could have been built or why they function as they do. That understanding finally came in 1859 when the English naturalist Charles Darwin (1 the member of the pair that is the same sex as the intruder drives the intruder away. Such jealous-like behavior helps to keep the mated pair intact. learning psychology. For historical reasons (explained in Chapter 8), this specialty is also called behavioral psychology. This means that many social-psychological explanations are also cognitive explanations. From an intellectual point of view, the problem of how any entity normally works—whether it is an automobile, a computer, or a human being—is much more interesting than the problem of how it breaks down. According to some psychologists, therefore, we should define our science as the study of behavior, or as the study of the brain and behavior, and leave the unobservable mind out of it. Most psychologists, however, find the concept of mind to be very useful and believe that a psychological level of analysis provides a different understanding of human behavior than a biological one. Having a theory of the brain does not replace having a theory of the mind (Bjorklund, 1997a). We can infer characteristics of the mind by observing behavior, and then we can use those inferences to make predictions about further behavior. Gravity can’t be seen directly, either—it is inferred by observing the behavior of physical entities; yet physicists find the concept of gravity to be very useful mind首先分為兩部分，一是過去記憶和程序技能，二是當(dāng)下意識體驗。另外分兩種定義方式，1是傳統(tǒng)心理學(xué)或哲學(xué)的思辨式，2是行為或神經(jīng)生理基礎(chǔ)的。前者其實可以說是理論定義，作用就相當(dāng)于理論推論，有用，但有可能犯錯。后者相當(dāng)于操作定義，描述性定義，無法作出有用的推論，但基本不會犯錯?？茖W(xué)需要理論和精確性，理念和經(jīng)驗，演繹和歸納之間的平衡。 even after he had learned what they were, he had to make a conscious effort to prevent himself from sending them after asking a 同時也正明馬的社會認(rèn)知學(xué)習(xí)能力 To suggest a complex, extraordinary explanation of some behavior requires that all simple and conventional explanations be considered first and judged inadequate. Moreover, the simpler the explanation is, the better it tends to be. This is referred to as parsimony, or Occam’s razor 先排除簡單的解釋，不要輕易接受過于復(fù)雜的解釋。越復(fù)雜的出錯率越高 Science walks on two legs: theory and observations. A scientific theory becomes more believable as repeated, genuine attempts to disprove it fail. 證偽與證真過程類似都是實驗，區(qū)別在于證偽是尋找潛在的其他影響變量，即未被考慮的或認(rèn)為不會影響的控制變量，改變該變量觀測因變量是否受影響，從而發(fā)現(xiàn)原結(jié)論的界限。證真只是重復(fù)原實驗，無法提供新信息。 A useful way to categorize the various research strategies used by psychologists is to think of them as varying along the following three dimensions (Hendricks et al., 1990): 1. Theresearchdesign,ofwhichtherearethreebasictypes:experiments, correlational studies, and descriptive studies. 2. Thesettinginwhichthestudyisconducted,ofwhichtherearetwo basic types: field and laboratory. 3. Thedata-collectionmethod,ofwhichtherearetwobasictypes:self- report and observation. One technique for minimizing the Hawthorne effect takes advantage of the phenomenon of habituation, a decline in response when a stimulus is repeatedly or continuously present. Although much of this noncoding DNA was once called “junk DNA” because scientists believed it had no purpose, recent evidence indicates that about 80% of DNA serves some function, such as regulating the activity of the coding DNA (ENCODE Project Consortium, 2012). Geneticists now distinguish between coding genes, which code for unique protein molecules, and regulatory genes, which work through various biological means to help activate or suppress specific coding genes and thereby influence the body’s development. Recent research comparing human and chimpanzee DNA suggests that the biggest genetic differences between the two species lie in certain regulatory genes that affect the development of the brain? Environment, as used in this context, refers to every aspect of an individual and his or her surroundings except the genes themselves.? Genes still provide the critical instructions for developing into a male or female animal, but the context in which the genes are expressed (a warm versus a cool temperature) determines the sex that will form. The sight, sound, or smell of newborns activates a particular gene. The activated gene produces a protein molecule that stimulates activity in a specific cluster of brain cells that are known to be crucial for the motivation and organization of such behaviors as retrieving young to a nest and hovering over them.? There is good reason to believe that prolonged behavioral effects that derive from experience, including those that we call “l(fā)earning,” involve the activation of genes (Spencer et al., 2009). Experiences activate genes, which produce proteins, which in turn alter the function of some of the neural circuits in the brain and thereby change the individual’s behavior. 突觸的改變需要蛋白質(zhì)，也就是某些基因的激活 FIGURE 3.2 Identical twins These 13-year-old girls have the same genotype, but they obviously differ in at least one aspect of their phenotype. The differences among cells in your body—such as muscle cells and skin cells—arise from the differential activation of their genes, not from different gene content. Although the chromosomes in each pair look the same, they do not contain precisely the same genes. It may seem ironic that the very cells you use for “reproduction” are the only cells in your body that cannot, in theory, reproduce you. By producing diverse offspring, parents reduce the risk that all of their offspring will die as a result of some unforeseen change in the environment. 某些基因疾病在和平時期也許是缺陷，但如果發(fā)生大災(zāi)難比如氣候或傳染病，某些特定變異基因的人類也許才是唯一活下去的。某種程度上，我們都是變種人的后代。 For example, if you cross red snapdragons (a kind of flower) with white snapdragons, the offspring will have pink flowers, because neither the red nor the white allele is dominant over the other. People with a single sickle-cell gene are less likely to die of malaria because their red blood cells are poor at supporting the growth of the malaria parasite. 鐮刀血細(xì)胞基因的雜合子，也就是只包含一個隱性的一對等位基因，既不會顯性表達(dá)鐮刀，也不會被瘧疾感染。顯性疾病基因顯然會被淘汰，但隱性很可能被保留。但如果他們跟別的種族雜交就很可能把這個隱性基因帶過去，而外界可能不需要抵抗瘧疾。這樣看種族隔離甚至有一點道理。每個物種的基因都是適應(yīng)當(dāng)?shù)丨h(huán)境，無法很好地遷移到別的環(huán)境。 Genetic diversity produced by sexual reproduction promotes survival of genes by reducing the chance that all offspring will die. 為了讓整個種族（不是個人而是群體）在更長的時間跨度上延續(xù)（不是現(xiàn)在的享受而是應(yīng)對將來可能出現(xiàn)的各種挑戰(zhàn)），需要犧牲一部分個體，需要犧牲過于適應(yīng)當(dāng)下環(huán)境帶來的享受。 Scott and Fuller’s work demonstrates only that the difference between cocker spaniels and basenji hounds in a particular test of fear is controlled by a single gene. 只是對人的恐懼而不是對任何的恐懼 But most anatomical and behavioral differences among individuals of any species are measurable in degree, not type. 因為大部分行為或表現(xiàn)的定義本身就很寬泛，包含了很多子行為或子功能，也就是包含了很多基因型和表現(xiàn)型。 For single-gene characteristics the effects of selective breeding are immediate, but for polygenic characteristics the effects are gradual and cumulative over generations. To control for the possibility that the offspring were somehow learning to be bright or dull from their mothers, Tryon cross-fostered the rats so that some of the offspring from each strain were raised by mothers in the other strain. The behavioral differences between two strains found in one laboratory often fail to occur in another laboratory, apparently because of subtle differences in the way the animals are housed or tested (Cabib et al., 2000; Crabbe et al., 1999). 也就是說，在培育過程中，對能力的影響還有無關(guān)變量，比如測量手段和實驗環(huán)境。這些外在因素共同對基因進(jìn)行塑造，但無法排除。所測量的能力是情境特異性的而不是一般能力。 more interested in exploring the maze’s blind alleys. In later studies, another researcher found that Tryon’s “dull” rats were as good as the “bright” ones, and sometimes even better, at other learning tasks (Searle, 1949). We do not know what underlying abilities or dispositions changed in Tryon’s two strains of rats to produce their difference in maze performance, but the change was apparently not one of general learning ability For example, in early development, genes that govern the building of an eye become methylated and “turn off” in all tissues except those that will eventually develop into eyes. However, DNA methylation can also be influenced by experience; indeed, it seems to be the primary mechanism by which experience modifies gene action and thus behavior. behavior and be transmitted to future generations, all without any changes in the genes themselves However, research with nonhuman animals suggests that the way the human brain “l(fā)earns” to react to stress through the production and processing of the hormone cortisol is likely governed by epigenetic mechanisms (Moore, 2015). 基因遺傳需要代際，表觀遺傳只需要經(jīng)驗習(xí)得，個體一生中就可以發(fā)生變化，適應(yīng)環(huán)境更高效更快 In the first chapter of The Origin of Species, Darwin (1859/1963) used the term artificial selection to refer to human-controlled selective breeding, and he reminded readers of the enormously diverse varieties of plants and animals that had been produced through that procedure. 人類馴化動物數(shù)萬年，只有到達(dá)爾文才發(fā)現(xiàn)自然界也存在"馴化" Selective breeding in nature, which Darwin labeled natural selection, is dictated not by the needs and whims of humans but by the obstacles to survival and reproduction that are imposed by the natural environment. 人類的馴化是"想要，自然界的馴化是"不要。前者有目的塑造（選擇，后者無目的的排除（不選 First, more individuals are born in a generation than will survive. 總會出現(xiàn)冗余的個體，為了讓基因變化更豐富，容錯率提高，不至于因為某個基因而絕種。代價就是會有很多不適應(yīng)的基因突變或遺傳病。納粹的意識形態(tài)看上去是在純化優(yōu)良基因，但真正的適應(yīng)是多樣性而非最優(yōu)基因的獨大。任何遺傳序列都不可能完美。一旦人類只剩下單個最優(yōu)的基因序列，很可能一個意想不到的危機(jī)就會讓所有人類滅絕。缺乏容錯率。 evolution is defined as changes in gene frequency between populations of individuals, with changes in genes being the “cause” of forming new species. However, animals inherit more than just their genes. They inherit chemicals within the egg and some cellular machinery, as well as a species-typical environment (a womb in mammals, for example). 進(jìn)化只是基因，遺傳是基因+內(nèi)環(huán)境（子宮和受精卵內(nèi)） Even Darwin did not reject that idea, but he added to it the concepts of random variation and natural selection. In the long run of evolution, mutation is the ultimate source of all genetic variation. Environmental change spurs evolution not by causing the appropriate mutations to occur but by promoting natural selection. 同一環(huán)境中進(jìn)化靠突變（變得更好），環(huán)境變化或遷徙時的進(jìn)化靠環(huán)境挑戰(zhàn)的修剪（排除差的）。前者慢后者快。 When the conditions of life change, what was previously a useful characteristic may become harmful, and vice versa. For example, some may think of humans as the “most evolved” creatures, with chimpanzees next and amoebas way down on the list. But evolution has no set route or planned end.? ?If natural selection promotes a self-interested struggle among individuals, for example, then selfishness is right. Such equations are logically indefensible because nature itself is neither moral nor immoral except as judged so by us. This is referred to as the naturalistic fallacy, and it is precisely that, a fallacy. The amoeba has no more chance of evolving to become like us than we have of evolving to become like it. Not every detail of every trait serves a useful function, and some traits that were once functional may not be so today. This reflex may well be useful today in the development of the infant’s ability to hold and manipulate objects, but that does not explain why prematurely born infants grasp so strongly that they can support their own weight, why they grasp with their toes as well as their hands, and why the best stimulus for eliciting this reflex is a clump of hair (Eibl-Eibesfeldt, 1975). Such variation, due to chance alone without selection, is called genetic drift. The different shapes might be a result of mutations that didn’t matter and therefore were never weeded out by natural selection. Sometimes guilt can be crippling; our capacity for guilt can be exploited by others for their ends at our expense. The best that natural selection could do was to develop a guilt mechanism that is triggered by certain general conditions. It could not build a mechanism capable of distinguishing every possible condition from every other one and triggering guilt only when it is useful. To this day, scientists are unsure which of these theories is correct. The mistake here is assuming or implying that genes influence behavior directly, rather than through the indirect means of working with the environment to build or modify biological structures that then, in interplay with the environment, produce behavior. 基因和行為中間有兩層過渡，蛋白質(zhì)表達(dá)和內(nèi)外環(huán)境 is unavoidable because it is controlled by our genes 基因只決定傾向，但是否表達(dá)還取決于主觀控制能力和環(huán)境。和前面的natural fallacy有點像。自然的就是好的，基因的就是無法避免的。 Raised eyebrows are also a component of the emotional expression of surprise (look at Figure 3.13 again), so the eyebrow flash with its accompanying smile might be interpreted as a nonverbal way of saying, “What a happy surprise to see you!” ?young birds learn to sing the dialect that they hear (Nelson et al., 2004). Flying has arisen separately in three taxonomic groups: birds, some insects (such as butterflies), and some mammals (bats). species must study species in which the relevant behavior is homologous, not analogous, to that in humans. Homologies are also useful for inferring the pathways along which species-typical behaviors evolved. 問題是知道了進(jìn)化路線有什么用 FIGURE 3.18 Cells built by honeybees and bumblebees Honeybees build hives with hexagonally shaped cells (a), the optimal shape for storing large amounts of honey and larvae using the least amount of precious wax. How do studies of homologies between humans and other primates support the view that the human greeting smile and the human happy smile have separate evolutionary origins? homology不僅可以讓動物作為研究被試的替代，還可以從別的物種身上發(fā)現(xiàn)類似的行為，研究該行為的原始功能和現(xiàn)代社會中的功能的異同，作為行為分類的證據(jù)（真假笑容的不同功能）， In one study, for example, 10-month-old infants smiled with eyes and mouth when approached by their mother (presumably a happy situation) but smiled with mouth alone when approached by a stranger (a possibly tense situation) (Fox & Davidson, 1988). People smile in two quite different contexts: (1) when genuinely happy and (2) when wishing to show another person that they are favorably disposed toward that person. The latter situation need not entail happiness at all; in fact, people are especially likely to smile at others in potentially tense circumstances, apparently as a means of reducing the tension . It involves the same facial muscles as are involved in human laughter (Parr et al., 2007), and in chimpanzees it is often accompanied by a vocalized ahh ahh ahh, which sounds like a throaty human laugh. This display apparently originated as a means for young primates to signal to each other that their aggressive-like behavior is not to be taken seriously; nobody will really get hurt. Interestingly, in human children, laughter occurs during playful fighting and chasing more reliably than during any other form of play (Blurton-Jones, 1967). Thus, our laughter is not only similar in form to the relaxed open-mouth display of other primates but also, at least in some cases, seems to serve a similar function If different species have independently evolved a particular behavioral trait, then comparing the species may reveal commonalities of habitat and lifestyle that are clues to the distal function of that trait. homology的作用有三個，研究替代，溯源和功能，analogy的功能只有功能（對于適應(yīng)環(huán)境。前者相似的功能比較高級，后者偏基本。 Based on Trivers’s theory of parental investment, why does high investment by the female lead to (a) polygyny, (b) large size of males, and (c) high selectivity in the female’s choice of mate? 一夫多妻，父系，男權(quán)，男性體格，競爭，女性挑剔，投資后代 This leads to a selective advantage for increased size and strength in males, up to some maximum beyond which the size advantage in obtaining mates is outweighed by disadvantages, such as difficulty in finding sufficient food to support the large size. Equal parental investment is most likely to come about when conditions make it impossible for a single adult to raise the young but quite possible for two to raise them. One parent alone cannot simultaneously guard the nest and leave it to get food, but two together can. Among mammals, monogamy has arisen in some species that are like birds in the sense that their young must be given food other than milk, of a type that the male can provide. The best-known examples are certain carnivores, including foxes and results in genetically superior young, and copulation with any additional male increases the chance that all her eggs will be fertilized by viable sperm (Zeh & Zeh, 2001). For the male, evolutionary advantage rests in driving neighboring males away from his own mate whenever possible and in copulating with neighboring females whenever possible.? 但其實這種行為并沒有帶來更多后代，因為不論如何出軌，雌性繁育周期是不變的，整個族群在確定時間內(nèi)的總后代量也是固定的，因此出軌和單偶生育的后代數(shù)量平均對雌雄來說都是一樣的。真正改變了的是每個窩內(nèi)的基因多樣性。（雖然我替別人養(yǎng)兒子，但別人也替我養(yǎng)兒子，我的兒子分布在世界各地比起只呆在一個窩里要更容易延續(xù)） social monogamy (the faithful pairing of female and male for raising young) does not necessarily imply sexual monogamy? relative harmony, without too much fighting over who mates with whom. A related advantage, from the female’s perspective, is paternity confusion (Hrdy, 2009). Among many species of primates, males kill young that are not their own, and such behavior has been observed in chimpanzees when a female migrates into a troop bringing with her an infant that was sired Here a male has mounted a female in a face-to-face position—a position long thought to be unique to humans. But bonobo sex occurs in all possible partner combinations (homosexual as well as heterosexual) and essentially all imaginable positions. In no culture are human beings as sexually promiscuous as are our closest ape relatives, the chimpanzees and bonobos. In every culture, people form long-term mating bonds, which are usually legitimized through some sort of culturally recognized marriage contract. Anthropologists have found that the great majority of non-Western cultures, where Western influence has not made polygyny illegal, practice a mixture of monogamy and polygyny In fact, among bonobos sex appears to be more a reducer of aggression than a cause of it (Parish & de Waal, 2000; Wrangham, 1993). Unlike any other apes, female bonobos copulate at all times of their reproductive cycle, not just near the time of ovulation. In addition to their frequent heterosexual activity, bonobos of the same sex often rub their genitals together, and genital stimulation of all types occurs most often following conflict and in situations that could potentially elicit conflict, such as when a favorite food is discovered (Hohmann & Fruth, 2000). Field studies suggest that bonobos are the most peaceful of primates and that their frequent promiscuous sexual activity helps keep them that way Taking both direct and indirect care into account, humans are a species in which fathers typically lag somewhat behind mothers, but not greatly behind them, in degree of parental investment. This, in line with Trivers’s parental investment theory, is consistent with our being a primarily monogamous but moderately polygynous species. The moderate size difference between men and women is also consistent with this conclusion (Dewsbury, 1988). Humans’ immune system was between those of the polygynous, harem-based gorilla and the monogamous gibbon (a lesser ape).? Although love and jealousy tend to promote bonding, there is another product of evolution—lust—that tends to motivate both men and women to engage surreptitiously in sex outside of such bonds. In this sense we are like those socially monogamous birds that are sexually unfaithful. When it does happen, usually two brothers will share a wife. In this way, a man can be assured that any child the woman conceives shares at least some of his genes: 50% if he’s the father and 25% if his brother is the father. When one of the brothers acquires enough resources to support a wife on his own, he often does so, leaving the polyandrous family? Female primates are not unaggressive, but their aggression is typically aimed directly toward obtaining resources and defending their young. The male at battle risks just himself; in the calculus of evolution, his life isn’t worth anything unless he can get a female to mate with him. In these examples, the helpers can apparently distinguish kin from nonkin, and this ability allows them to direct help selectively to kin (Pfennig & Sherman, 1995; Silk, 2002). 分辨親屬關(guān)系的能力其實對個體無利益，只是對基因本身有利（群體），但這種能力促進(jìn)了合作，間接對個體生存產(chǎn)生幫助。 intelligence allow us to extend our concept of kinship to all humanity. Humans also help others, including others who may never be able to reciprocate, in order to develop a good reputation in the community at large, and those with a good reputation are valued and helped by the community (Fehr & Fischbacher, 2003). The reasons we give ourselves for what we do are an aspect of the proximate causation of our behavior. We are often no more aware of the distal functions of our actions than the cabbage butterfly is of why it is irresistibly drawn to plants of the cabbage family as the only proper place to lay its eggs. Noticing that the blood vessels leading into it are larger than those entering other organs, they suggested that the brain’s main function was to cool the blood. Don’t confuse the terms neuron and nerve. Note also that despite their names, the central and peripheral nervous systems are not two separate systems, but are parts of an integrated whole. The human nervous system contains a few million sensory and motor neurons and roughly 86 billion interneurons. Although each action potential is all or none, a neuron can convey varying degrees of intensity in its message by varying its rate of producing action potentials. A given neuron might fire off action potentials at a rate anywhere from less than 1 per second to as many as 1,000 per second. By varying its rate of action potentials, a neuron varies the strength of its effect on other neurons or muscle cells. The myelin sheath is not part of the neuron; it is formed of separate cells that are wrapped tightly around the axon. Because channels in the membrane that are permeable to potassium remain open, some potassium ions diffuse out, resulting in a surplus of positive charges outside the cell and a deficit of positive charges inside. For this reason, the resting membrane has an electrical charge across it of about 70 mV,? When an axon branches, the action potential follows each branch and thus reaches each of the possibly thousands of axon terminals. Large-diameter axons present less resistance to the spread of electric currents and therefore conduct action potentials faster than thin ones. Another feature that speeds up the rate of conduction in many axons is the myelin sheath ( Neurons in the sensory system are the first to be myelinated, with most sensory structures being completely myelinated before a child’s first birthday. This is followed by myelination of neurons in the motor area, which is nearly complete within the second year of life. The last areas to become fully myelinated are the associative areas in the frontal cortex—the “thinking” area of the brain—which are not completely myelinated until early adulthood ( Thus, the rate of action potentials in the postsynaptic neuron’s axon depends on the net effect of the depolarizing and hyperpolarizing influences from excitatory and inhibitory synapses. Synapse formation is most rapid in the months immediately following birth, but the peak of synapse formation varies for different parts of the brain. FIGURE 4.10 Age differences in synapse production and pruning in the prefrontal and visual cortex The number of synapses show sharp increases early in development but then experience “pruning,” as the brain gets sculpted to its eventual adult form. 細(xì)胞和突觸增長早的區(qū)域修剪也早 Cell death and synaptic pruning occur at different rates for different parts of the brain. Although brains do grow larger with age, this increase is due primarily to the increasing size of individual neurons and myelination of axons, not to the generation of new neurons (Lenroot & Giedd, 2007). Furthermore, it’s not just synapses that are lost; neurons themselves also die in a process, known as selective cell death, or apoptosis [a-p?p-tō ?-s?s], which begins before birth and continues well into the teen years (Spear, 2007; Stiles et al., 2015). Although TMS is usually used to study the effects of temporary inactivation of a brain area, it can also be used to study the effects of temporary activation. A somewhat similar technique called transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) involves directing weak electrical currents to specific areas of the brain; it has been found to alter perceptual, cognitive, and motor functioning. To stimulate neurons electrically, a wire electrode is lowered into the brain using the same surgical method as that used to produce a lesion. 同樣的方法三種操作，損毀，刺激，記錄 To stimulate neurons chemically, a cannula is permanently implanted in the brain, and shortly before behavioral testing a tiny amount of a neurotransmitter substance or other chemical known to activate neurons is injected through it. 電和化學(xué)都可以損毀和刺激， the lesions are made in deep, primitive areas of the animal’s brain, whose functions are similar for all mammals, including humans.? SECTION REVIEW 記錄：細(xì)胞層面，電極；整體生物電，EEG；整體新陳代謝，PET，fMRI。刺激：小塊區(qū)域的電或化學(xué)，TMS（人類）。損毀：不可逆（動物）：電或化學(xué)；TMS可逆人類。 The flow of information in this hierarchy is primarily from bottom (sensory receptors) to top (perceptual centers in the brain). The other hierarchy, the motor- control hierarchy, is involved in control of movement. The flow of information here is primarily from top to bottom. The 86 billion neurons of the central nervous system are all involved in controlling the 2 or 3 million motor neurons, which in turn control behavior. Whereas skeletal motor neurons initiate activity in the skeletal muscles, autonomic motor neurons typically modulate (modify) rather than initiate activity in the visceral muscles. Skeletal muscles are completely inactive in the absence of neural input, but visceral muscles have built-in, nonneural mechanisms for generating activity.? In some animals (but not in humans), the pattern generators become active when released from the brain’s inhibitory control over them, which accounts for the wing flapping and running motions of the headless chicken. Normally, in intact animals, pattern generators are controlled by neurons descending from the brain. They can be either inhibited, producing a motionless animal, or activated to varying degrees, producing varying rates of locomotion. The spinal cord is the site of entry of spinal nerves, and the brainstem is the site of entry of most (10 of the 12 pairs) of the cranial nerves. The medulla and pons organize reflexes that are more complex and sustained than spinal reflexes. An animal (such as a cat) whose central nervous system is cut completely through just above the brainstem, referred to as a brainstem animal, is a fascinating creature to watch. It can produce most of the species-typical behaviors that a normal animal can produce (Klemm, 1990). It can walk, run, jump, climb, groom itself, attack, produce copulatory movements, chew, swallow, and so on. Unlike a normal animal, however, it makes these responses only when provoked by immediate stimuli; it does not behave in either a spontaneous or a goal- directed manner. Both structures are specialized to use sensory information to guide movements, but they apparently use that information in different ways. The basal ganglia appear to use sensory information primarily in a feedback manner. In other words, sensory input pertaining to an ongoing movement (such as the sight of how the hand is moving) feeds back into the basal ganglia and is used to adjust the movement as it progresses. The cerebellum, in contrast, uses sensory information primarily in a feed- forward manner (Ohyama et al., 2003). That is, it uses sensory information to program the appropriate force and timing of a movement before the movement is initiated. That is why the cerebellum is especially crucial for movements that occur too rapidly to be modified once they are in progress. 小腦是前饋，基底節(jié)是反饋。小腦編碼的動作熟練而刻板，基底節(jié)的動作精細(xì)較慢需要靈活性。 Damage to the cerebellum is especially associated with loss in ability to behave in ways that require rapid, well-timed sequences of muscle movements, such as pitching a baseball, leaping over a hurdle, playing a musical instrument, or typing a series of words at a computer (Bagnall et al., 2013). In contrast, damage to the basal ganglia is especially associated with loss of ability to coordinate slower, deliberate movements, such as reaching out to pick up an object (Mink, 2013). 小腦是動作技能，基底節(jié)是日常動作。 The researchers implanted electrodes deep into the central nuclei of the patient’s thalamus. In response to prolonged weak electrical stimulation through those electrodes, the patient would open his eyes, respond to simple requests, recognize and respond to family members, chew and swallow food placed in his mouth, and could begin a course of physical therapy that had previously been impossible. The limbic system is believed to have evolved originally as a system for the sophisticated analysis of input from the sense of smell (Thompson, 1985), and its connections with the nose remain strong. In addition, it is intimately connected to the basal ganglia, and that connection is believed to help translate emotions and drives into actions. The hypothalamus is not technically part of the limbic system, but is intimately connected to all the structures of that system (see Figure 4.18). This it accomplishes by (a) influencing the activity of the autonomic nervous system, (b) controlling the release of certain hormones (to be described later), and (c) affecting certain drive states, such as hunger and thirst. In addition, through its connections with the limbic system, the hypothalamus helps to regulate emotional states, such as fear and anger. The hypothalamus plays a major role in the regulation of basic drives important to survival, including the so-called “four Fs”: fighting, fleeing, feeding, and (to put it politely) fornicating. 下丘腦跟腦干其實有點像 Notice that both subcortical and cortical structures exist at each of the top three levels of the hierarchy. Although this portrayal does not show all the known pathways, However, there is a possible danger in this portrayal: It can seduce us into believing we know more than we actually do. At the third level, the motor program is conveyed through two pathways for further refinement. The program for larger movements, such as walking toward the cherries, is sent directly down to a set of motor nuclei in the upper part of the brainstem. The program for delicate movements, such as those needed for removing the stems and eating the fruit while avoiding swallowing the pits, is conveyed to the motor cortex, which, in turn, sends its output down to the brainstem and spinal cord. It is important to remember that such statements don’t address the far more difficult question of how the association cortex makes decisions or how various other structures develop and refine programs for action. the hard problem Today we know that the circulatory system does indeed play a vital communicative role in the body, though not the one envisioned by the ancients. Some effects of hormones are long term or irreversible, and some of these occur before birth. In general, conditions that would seem to promote self-confidence tend to increase a man’s production of testosterone. For example, winning a game, even a sedentary game like chess, or a contrived speed-based button-pressing competition, commonly results in increased blood levels of testosterone in men, detectable within minutes of the victory (Archer, 2006; Gladue et al., 1989), and winning such contests, relative to losing them, is also associated with increased sexual interest in women (Gorelik & Bjorklund, 2015). Apparently, in women, hormonal activation of the drive has been taken over largely by adrenal androgens. In clinical studies, women whose ovaries have been removed do not generally report a decline in sexual drive, but most women whose adrenals have been removed do report such a decline; and long-term treatment with These hormones are also produced at lower levels by the adrenal glands, in females as well as in males. A number of studies, using various measures, indicate that women are significantly more motivated sexually at the time in their cycle when they are fertile than at other times. In women and some other female primates, adrenal androgens promote sexual receptivity throughout the ovarian cycle. 也許越豐富的資源可以支持不限時的生育，資源有限的物種必須得保證后代出生在食物豐富的季節(jié)，因此必須有繁殖期限制？ But Gazzaniga (1967, 1998) showed that under special test conditions, in which information is provided to just one hemisphere or the other, patients with split brains behave as though they have two separate minds with different abilities. 心理學(xué)家的實驗設(shè)計和神經(jīng)科學(xué)的解剖原理結(jié)合才能產(chǎn)生有價值的發(fā)現(xiàn)。這是個典型。 Such symmetry breaks down, however, in the association areas. The fascinating result was that the person could reliably identify with the left hand (but not with the right) the same object that he or she had just vocally denied having seen (Gazzaniga, 1967). 意識的定義被這個實驗動搖了。也許該分為動作意識和言語報告意識。左腦意識與右腦意識。分離的意識與整合的意識。胼胝體本身也許就是意識的一部分，作為整體意識的必要條件。 When asked to arrange puzzle pieces to match a particular design or to copy three-dimensional pictures, each subject performed far better with the left hand (controlled by the right hemisphere) than with the right hand (controlled by the left hemisphere), even though all of the subjects were right-handed (see Figure 4.30). 注意這里的左手思考而非左手操作。這里的任務(wù)是從皮層的高級分析區(qū)傳到左手的，而不是基底節(jié)和小腦。如果單純比熟練度肯定還是右手。 Additional research, with people whose corpus callosum has not been cut, has shown that about 4% of right- handed individuals and 15% of left-handed individuals have their speech centers located in the right hemisphere rather than the left (Rasmussen & Milner, 1977). 利手一部分決定單側(cè)化，但還有一部分單側(cè)化原因無法用利手解釋，百分之八十五的左利手和百分之四的右利手。 FIGURE 4.30 Evidence for right-hemisphere superiority in spatial representation Although the split-brain patient who produced these drawings was right-handed, he could copy geometric figures much better with his left hand (controlled by his right hemisphere) than with his right hand. 這就是個很好的操作與思考分離的實驗。右手線段更平滑熟練但沒畫下幾何體的本質(zhì)特征。高級分析區(qū)和低級操作運動系統(tǒng)的分離。 Motor centers that control movements of the larger muscles, such as those of the legs and arms (but not the fingers) lie in the lower, undivided parts, and some sensory information also passes from one hemisphere to the other by way of those lower routes (Reuter-Lorenz & Miller, 1998). The intact connections also apparently allow each hemisphere to inhibit the motor output of the other, so the more competent hemisphere can take control of any given task? In some instances, especially shortly after the surgery, conflict does occur. One man described a situation in which, while he was dressing in the morning, his right hand was trying to pull his pants on while his left hand was trying to pull them back off (Gazzaniga, 1970); apparently, his right hemisphere wanted to go back to bed. But such conflicts are rare, and when they do occur, the left hemisphere (right hand) usually wins. 右腦傾向偷懶，左腦執(zhí)行控制力較強(qiáng)。病人把普通人的內(nèi)心沖突外化，只能用行為表現(xiàn)糾結(jié)但無法意識到，正常人的胼胝體可以有意識地解決沖突統(tǒng)一一個行為表現(xiàn)。 be felt with both hands, the two hemispheres can receive the same or similar information through their separate channels. Finally, each hemisphere apparently learns to communicate indirectly with the other by observing and responding to the behavior that the other produces, a process that Gazzaniga (1967) labeled cross-cueing.? 把本該在中樞解決的問題繞過受損的中樞胼胝體，走了外周的通路。但問題是不論是感覺還是運動都只在一側(cè)，運動的肌肉反饋也沒法傳到對側(cè)。也許會牽動一些對側(cè)的感覺肌肉。 Such observations led Gazzaniga (2000) to posit that one of the natural functions of the left hemisphere is to interpret, or try to make logical sense of, everything that the person does. You might think of this left- hemisphere interpreter as analogous to the public relations department of a business or government. Its role is to tell stories, both to the self and to others, designed to make sense of the seemingly contradictory and irrational things that the person does. The idea of such an interpreter in the human brain or mind is by no means new. It was the centerpiece of a theory of consciousness proposed by Sigmund Freud (1912/1932) more than 100 years ago. According to Freud, we do things because unconscious decision-making processes in our mind make us do them. But one part of our mind observes what we do and tells a running story about it; that story constitutes our conscious understanding of our actions and the reasons for them. The split-brain studies indicate that the neural mechanism for generating such stories is located in the left hemisphere and is intimately connected with the brain areas that generate speech. 但問題是，interpret 的前提是掌握話語權(quán)，會使用語言符號。右腦只是不會使用語言表達(dá)，但無法證明右腦是否會以非言語的方式interpret（也許設(shè)計足夠巧妙的實驗可以解決這個問題）。也許右腦也產(chǎn)生了屬于他的解釋，只不過無法通過言語通向意識高度。需要設(shè)計左手操作的行為實驗。 In sum, studies of people with damage to Broca’s area suggest that neurons in and around this area are crucial for at least two seemingly distinct language functions: (1) articulating words and sentences in a fluent manner and (2) transforming grammatically complex sentences that are heard into simpler ones in order to extract the meaning. 是否可以說，broca主管的是語言中非聯(lián)結(jié)性習(xí)得的部分，無法套入符號~物體這一對應(yīng)關(guān)系的詞，無法從記憶中提取，定義沒有現(xiàn)實中具體對應(yīng)物。連詞冠詞語法都是如此。它們是規(guī)則學(xué)習(xí)而非聯(lián)結(jié)性學(xué)習(xí)。所以broca在更抽象的額葉，wernicke是后部與記憶和感知相關(guān)的顳頂葉。動物的wernicke學(xué)習(xí)可以做到，但由于額葉不發(fā)達(dá)broca的學(xué)習(xí)對動物很難。 Its location near the primary auditory area is also consistent with the role of translating sounds into meaningful words (Geschwind, 1972). 把聲音轉(zhuǎn)化成意義，也可以說是在記憶中搜索音義的聯(lián)結(jié) Split-brain patients enable researchers to study the functioning of each hemisphere independent of the other. 有一個問題，倆半球各自的作用不一定等于他們合作時各自的作用。他們各自功能作用只和肯定也不是簡單相加。裂腦人的半球功能能否推廣到正常人還未知。 Apparently, the brain reorganization resulted not from the skin stimulation per se, but rather from the monkeys’ use of that stimulation to guide their behavior. 學(xué)習(xí)或神經(jīng)活性增強(qiáng)需要有學(xué)習(xí)意圖（這里是獎賞），也就是需要有意注意。這個實驗也可以用來批判被動接受的學(xué)習(xí) For example, regions of the occipital lobe that in sighted people are involved in the visual analysis of three- dimensional space become devoted, in the blind, to the task of identifying the locations from which sounds are coming (Gougoux et al., 2005). In Braille readers, large parts of the occipital cortex become devoted to analyzing tactile input from the fingers in the finely graded way needed to read Braille (Pascual-Leone et al., 2005). Blind people also commonly develop superior verbal memory to compensate for their inability to look up information easily or to find objects by looking. Alvaro Pascual-Leone and his colleagues (2005) found that at least some of these brain changes began to occur in sighted people who had been blindfolded for just 5 days. When the blindfolds were removed, the changes quickly reversed themselves. Moreover, those blind subjects who scored best on the memory test showed the most activity in the occipital cortex. Various bird species that hide seeds have been found to remember spatial locations better than do species that don’t hide seeds and to have an enlargement of an area of When caged chickadees are allowed to hide and retrieve seeds, their hippocampi grow, and when they are then prevented from hiding and retrieving seeds for a period of time, their hippocampi shrink again. The presynaptic terminal becomes larger, able to release more transmitter substance than it could before, and the postsynaptic membrane develops more conventional receptor sites than it had before. Sets of neurons that behave like this have been found in many parts of the mammalian brain, including various areas of the cerebral cortex, the hippocampus, the cerebellum, and the amygdala—all of which are known to be involved in various kinds of learning (Byrne, 2008). 基本可以說所有生物的所有腦區(qū)都有l(wèi)tp。生物或者大腦的本質(zhì)就是學(xué)習(xí)。 The LTP-inhibited mice failed to learn such fear. They responded to the shock as did normal mice, but, unlike normal mice, they did not subsequently show fear responses to the tone ( Remarkably, but just as predicted, the Doogie mice also showed better memory than the unaltered mice in a series of three widely different tests: maze learning, classical conditioning of a fear response, and object recognition (see Figure 4.34). In each case, the altered mice behaved similarly to the unaltered mice during the learning experience but showed significantly better memory when tested a day or more later (Tsien, 2000). More recently, Tsien and his colleagues showed that such genetic modification can also prevent the decline in memory that normally occurs in aged mice (Cao et al., 2007). Mice that were genetically altered to produce enhanced LTP explored the new object (in this case, the one on the right) more than the old one even when several days had elapsed since the initial session. If a simple genetic change can improve memory by increasing LTP, then why hasn’t evolution already produced that change through natural selection? Perhaps LTP beyond a certain level, or even memory beyond a certain level, is maladaptive in the conditions of everyday life. mental life has both fast- and slow-moving components. Sensations, perceptions, thoughts, and muscle movements flit through our consciousness and behavior at speeds measured in milliseconds. But slower changes, measurable in minutes or hours, modulate and help to direct these rapid changes. These slower-changing components of the mind are called behavioral states; they include variations in motivation, emotion, and level of arousal Drives in psychology are considered hypothetical constructs because they can’t be directly observed. A more precise label for the topic at hand is motivational state, or drive. Drives and incentives complement one another in the control of behavior; if one is weak, the other must be strong to motivate the goal-directed action. Drives and incentives not only complement each other but also influence each other’s strength. A strong drive can enhance the attractiveness (incentive value) of a particular object: For example, if the caloric (energy) content of its food is increased or decreased, an animal will compensate by eating less or more of it, keeping the daily intake of calories relatively constant. The hospital staff would not yield to his demands for salt, and he died within a few days. An autopsy revealed that his adrenal glands were deficient; only then did D. W.’s doctors realize that his salt craving came from physiological need. His strong drive for salt and his ability to manipulate his parents into supplying it, even though they were unaware that he needed it, had kept D. W. alive for more than 2 years after the onset of the adrenal deficiency— powerful evidence for “the wisdom of the body.” In humans, these drives can be as powerful as the regulatory, safety, and reproductive drives. he most obvious safety drive is fear, which motivates individuals to flee from danger. Another is anger, which is manifested when fighting (or threatening to fight) rather than flight is needed to ensure one’s safety. We will argue later in this chapter that sleep 這里的安全驅(qū)力顯然已經(jīng)包含情緒。只有safty和regulatory是關(guān)乎個體生死的。其它的要么是關(guān)乎群體要么是成長性而非生死攸關(guān)。 When other drives are not too pressing, the drives for play and exploration come to the fore. When they are at a peak, these drives can be extraordinarily powerful. Animals (including people) will risk their lives to mate and to protect their offspring. As discussed in Chapter 3, sexual jealousy, including the anger associated with it,? 繁殖驅(qū)力不影響個體存亡但關(guān)乎群體 Educativedrives.Theseconsistprimarilyofthedrivestoplayandto explore (curiosity). 信息獲取。不僅是活下去，而是活得更好，提高質(zhì)量的信息。顯然這個驅(qū)力取決于智力水平和基本生活保障即資源豐富度。 At present, these questions are much debated, and there is no firm answer. Our own view is that the pursuits of art, music, and literature are natural extensions of our drives for play and exploration. These pursuits can exercise perceptual and motor skills, imagination, and creative thinking in ways that may be useful in future real-life situations and can also provide us with ideas for governing our own lives. Like other playful and exploratory activities, these pursuits help our minds to grow during periods when there are no more pressing survival needs that must be fulfilled. Developing skills in art, music, and storytelling may also enhance one’s status in a social group and impress members of the opposite sex, which would have had survival value for our ancestors. educative drive的延伸。 Of course, some things that people become motivated for are truly harmful. Drug addictions and compulsive gambling? To suggest that art, music, and literature may be vicarious means of satisfying other drives rather than drives in and of themselves is not to diminish them. These pursuits enrich our lives immensely; they extend us beyond evolution’s narrow dictates of mere survival and reproduction. A somewhat different (but not incompatible) view, presented by Steven Pinker (1997), is that art, music, and literature appeal to us not because we have special drives for them but because they tap into many of our already existing drives and proclivities, which evolved for other purposes. 其實還是一樣的思路。前文把審美納入educative，pinker把審美納入別的drive，有點類似弗洛伊德對藝術(shù)的看法，替代滿足。同時也能拓寬經(jīng)驗。合理的想象力也可以是經(jīng)驗來源。 For a set of neurons to serve as a central drive system, first, it must receive and integrate the various signals that can raise or lower the drive state. 首先要感知體內(nèi)平衡狀態(tài)，其次要能發(fā)起行動。 It is centered at the base of the brain, just above the brainstem, and is strongly interconnected with higher areas of the brain. It also has direct connections to nerves that carry input from, and autonomic motor output to, the body’s internal organs. It has many capillaries and is more sensitive to hormones and other substances carried by the blood than are other brain areas. Finally, through its connections to the pituitary gland, it controls the release of many hormones (as described in Chapter 4). Thus, the hypothalamus has all the inputs and outputs that central drive systems would be expected to have.? Reinforcement refers to the effects that rewards have in promoting learning. As discussed in Chapter 8 (in the section on operant conditioning), animals and people learn to attend to stimuli that signal the availability of rewards, and they learn to make responses that bring rewards in the presence of those stimuli. reward分為三種，reward之前是wanting，之中感受到liking，之后習(xí)得了reinforcement。wanting最接近drive的概念，只有wanting包括目標(biāo)和行動。 This is the component of reward that links most clearly to the concept of motivation. To want something is to be motivated to get it. Whereas pleasure occurs when a reward is received, wanting occurs before it is received. Wanting is typically measured by assessing the amount of effort an individual will exert, or the amount of pain the individual will bear, in order to obtain the reward. Usually objects that are wanted are also liked, but it is possible to separate the two. FIGURE 5.4 A reward pathway in the brain The medial forebrain bundle is a neural tract consisting of neurons whose cell bodies are in nuclei in the midbrain and whose synaptic terminals are in the nucleus accumbens of the basal ganglia. They also continue to exhibit the facial “l(fā)iking” expression (depicted in Figure 5.2) when they taste a sugar solution. However, they do not continue to seek out or work for rewards that are not immediately present ( This pattern is consistent with the idea that dopamine helps motivate the animal to obtain the reward (promotes “wanting”) but is not essential for the pleasure (“l(fā)iking”) associated with obtaining the reward. rate at which rats and other animals will work for food, but do not increase the facial “l(fā)iking” response to sucrose or the animal’s consumption of food that is immediately available The release of dopamine into the nucleus accumbens appears to be crucial not just for motivating animals to work for rewards, but also for their ability to learn to use cues to predict when and where rewards are available. One line of evidence for this is the observation that dopamine release promotes long- term potentiation (LTP) of neural connections within the nucleus accumbens? reinforce需要wanting即多巴胺的參與，like（內(nèi)啡肽）對行為習(xí)得似乎無用，因為后者無法驅(qū)動行為，也無法產(chǎn)生像前者那樣的LTP對記憶的塑造 accumbens, they increase the facial “l(fā)iking” reaction to sucrose (Smith & Berridge, 2007) and also increase the amount of immediately present food that an animal will eat? Endorphins are chemicals created within the body that have effects similar to those of morphine and other opiate drugs such as opium and heroin; they are best known for their role in inhibiting the sense of pain. Endorphin is short for “endogenous morphine-like substance Some of the neurons of the medial forebrain bundle that terminate in the nucleus accumbens release not dopamine but a different transmitter, one that is in the endorphin family. 內(nèi)啡肽和多巴胺共享同一條通路 The learning component of reward is closely related to the “wanting” component. The animal eats and apparently enjoys the food, but no dopamine release accompanies that behavior. This pattern of dopamine release is consistent with the idea that dopamine is involved in new learning (Schultz, 1998). 但不像上個LTP的實驗，這個實驗無法證明多巴胺對學(xué)習(xí)的作用，它可能只是個習(xí)得的后果而不是前因，只能說能通過多巴胺的改變來證明是否發(fā)生了學(xué)習(xí)，是個學(xué)習(xí)結(jié)果的indicator，而不能說多巴胺造成了學(xué)習(xí)。 Dopamine release now occurs in response to the signal preceding reward (the light) because now the animal’s interest lies in learning how to predict when the signal will appear or how to make it appear. 或者可以這樣說，因為wanting系統(tǒng)可以停止了，聯(lián)結(jié)是固定的，它不用再發(fā)起行動了，多巴胺是控制wanting的行動過程。接下來它只需要等著就行。也許再加一個或多個操作性前提反應(yīng)的話，也許它的多巴胺會一直分泌直到最后一個操作行為完成，而不是第一個操作行為或線索出現(xiàn)后就停止分泌。所以多巴胺分泌可能不在于興趣的轉(zhuǎn)變而在于是否還需要驅(qū)動行為?？紤]到多巴胺在帕金森中的作用。不知道是否有類似的實驗研究過。待查文獻(xiàn)。 The craving itself, rather than any expected pleasure, becomes the main reason for taking the drug. Drug taking becomes a compulsion rather than something that one freely chooses to do for pleasure. (Other reasons why drug addicts continue to take drugs, having to do with conditioned counteractive responses,? any cues that are present in the environment and the feelings and behaviors of wanting and taking the drug 線索大概包括兩種，一是直接與成癮行為相關(guān)的線索比如獲取藥物的行為或方法，二是偶然在用藥時的經(jīng)驗比如地點。 but will stop self-administering the drugs if the nucleus accumbens is destroyed or chemically blocked? 成癮的兩個條件，通路解剖結(jié)構(gòu)的完整和引起多巴胺和內(nèi)啡肽的藥物 Not only do they produce an immediate sense of euphoria, but even more significant for the problem of addiction, they strongly activate the dopamine-receiving neurons in the nucleus accumbens that are responsible for promoting reward-based learning. 不止是單純的快感，因為多巴胺通路的激活會直接導(dǎo)致行為的產(chǎn)生。單純的快感學(xué)習(xí)（一般的操作性條件反射）可以被皮層控制（正常情況下的學(xué)習(xí)多巴胺不會分泌過多），但直接大量刺激多巴胺通路產(chǎn)生的行為偏強(qiáng)迫性，難被意識控制，自動激活行為。 The loss in liking occurs, presumably, because of drug-induced changes in the brain that reduce the endorphin-mediated pleasure response. 也許like的機(jī)制更復(fù)雜，可能包括了皮層的思考結(jié)果。理性顯然會拒絕承認(rèn)成癮行為的正當(dāng)性，因此like可能受到前額葉的影響而不只是低級通路。待查文獻(xiàn)。 ormal rewards, such as food, activate these neurons only when the reward is unexpected; but cocaine and other addictive drugs, through their direct chemical effects, activate these neurons every time the drug is taken. A greater number of DA neurons, however, were excited by salience—the increased likelihood of any reinforcement, independent of whether it was a reward or a punishment, and especially when it was unpredictable。cognitive neuroscience的decision making那一章。多巴胺神經(jīng)元有兩種，一是獎賞二是新異性，也就是只要是意外事件不論是獎賞還是懲罰不論是量的增多還是減少，都會激活這部分神經(jīng)元。但是如果一直不變的獎賞是不會激活。所以正常情況下的獎賞不會過多激活多巴胺通路。但直接刺激的藥物就不一樣了。 Consciously, the person may know that the game pays off in a way that is unpredictable and uninfluenced by anything that he or she does, but the brain’s primitive reward system nevertheless behaves as if it is constantly trying to learn how to predict and produce the reward. 總結(jié)下多巴胺的幾個功能，1，獎賞時或意外獎賞時活躍，wanting。2，學(xué)習(xí)，LTP。3，運動和行為。在賭博過程中，前兩個功能結(jié)合在一起發(fā)揮作用。學(xué)習(xí)就是為了得到獎賞，學(xué)習(xí)本身成了獎賞的cue“只要我找到規(guī)律一定就能贏錢”也許賭博者潛意識里是這樣想的。人類大腦就是為了在混亂的世界里找到能創(chuàng)造有利于繁衍的結(jié)果的規(guī)律而進(jìn)化出來的，尋找越多的規(guī)律可以囤積越多的資源而不是被動等待。所以即使意識明白賭博機(jī)制是完全隨機(jī)的，潛意識里還是在被基因控制著去尋找獎賞背后的規(guī)律性。多巴胺每檢測到一次意外事件就是在提醒個體去發(fā)現(xiàn)意外背后的規(guī)律。這也能把多巴胺看似不相關(guān)的功能，獎賞的意外和學(xué)習(xí)功能結(jié)合起來。而且正常情況下，自然界里生存，資源的獲得確實是都有規(guī)律可循，但在人為創(chuàng)造的賭場，打破了自然界的規(guī)律性，瞬間被隨機(jī)性淹沒，而如此大量的隨機(jī)性獎賞在自然界是不可能出現(xiàn)的（因為自然定律，而且自然界本來也沒現(xiàn)代社會如此大量的資源，更沒有貨幣這種可以兌換任何資源的通貨），人腦不是為這種情況設(shè)計的。就像甜食一樣，賭博也是利用了人腦進(jìn)化上的滯后性bug。 Because the payoff is never predictable, every instance of payoff results in a new burst of dopamine release in the nucleus accumbens, no matter how many times the person plays. 時間和獎賞劑量都不可預(yù)測。如前所述，某類DA神經(jīng)元只對新異性放電。 The release of dopamine into the nucleus accumbens is associated with wanting; the release of endorphins into this area is associated with liking. The release of dopamine into the nucleus accumbens is also crucial to reinforcement; it promotes learning how to predict and obtain a given reward. 三種reward都是同一個reward通路里，wanting和reinforcement是多巴胺，liking是內(nèi)啡肽， Any regulatory system, whether human-made or organic, makes use of feedback control. But the satiety mechanisms are not as robust as the hunger mechanisms. The same researchers also found that lean subjects had higher baseline levels of naturally produced PYY than did obese subjects and exhibited a much greater increase in PYY following a meal (see Figure 5.5). Not surprising, the hunger mechanism, when it is working optimally, is sensitive not just to the short-term indicators of the amount of food recently eaten but also to the amount of fat stored in the body. Subsequent research, however, found that hunger is reduced by increased leptin up to a certain level, but that most overweight people already have blood concentrations of leptin well above that level and additional leptin has no effect (Marx, 2003). Evolution led us and other animals to be opportunists with regard to food; our hunger increases when food is available so that we don’t pass up opportunities to eat. renewed activity in appetite-stimulating neurons in the hypothalamus? This phenomenon is referred to as sensory- specific satiety, and many experiments show that it is mediated primarily by the sense of taste (Raynor & Epstein, 2001). even if the nutritional content of various foods is identical? 也許是因為進(jìn)化上多樣化進(jìn)食營養(yǎng)豐富 It simply means that the environmental conditions that promote obesity are fairly constant within Western cultures, so differences in weight have mostly to do with genetic differences in how individuals respond to those conditions. 這里的環(huán)境說的大概是文化。如果考慮社經(jīng)地位的話肯定有影響。 More important, subjects reported feelings of fullness and satiety after consuming glucose, but not after consuming fructose. when prenatal nutrition is poor, brain circuitry develops differently, causing individuals to hold on to as many calories as they can in anticipation of limited food resources (see Gluckman & Hansen, 2005). 吃的越少體脂越難減，不僅適用于個體健身，也適用于產(chǎn)前環(huán)境 The low amplitude of these waves indicates that neurons are firing in an unsynchronized manner, such that their contributions to the EEG tend to cancel one another out. 波幅是整體發(fā)電同步性 On the basis of the EEG alone, one might think that the person had awakened, but direct observation shows that the person is sound asleep, and the record of muscle tension shows that the muscles are more relaxed than at any other sleep stage. Yet, consistent with the unsynchronized EEG, other indices of high arousal are apparent: Breathing and heart rate become more rapid and less regular; penile erection occurs in males (even in infants and young boys); twitching movements occur in the small muscles of the fingers and face; and, most indicative of all, the eyes move rapidly back and forth and up and down under the closed eyelids.? 除了肌肉基本都活躍 true dream (Foulkes, 1985). Such a dream is experienced as if it were a real event rather than something merely imagined or thought about Often the subject of sleep thought is some problem that had been of concern during the day. 原來夢到思考問題是因為這個。 Whether asleep or awake, the sound of one’s own name had effects on emotional centers in the limbic system that did not occur in response to sounds that were less meaningful to the person. The fact that parents can sleep through a thunderstorm but become aroused by the whimpering of their child in the next room is further evidence that the sleeping person’s brain sorts out sounds by meaning to some degree. Countless children have asked that question to protest being put to bed, and many scientists have asked it, too. Infants who are being cared for by adults do not need to spend time foraging, and sleep protects them from wandering into danger. Their sleep also gives their caregivers an opportunity to rest or attend to other needs. At one extreme, large grazing animals such as bison and horses average only 2 or 3 hours of sleep per 24-hour day. Because of their large size and because they eat grass and other vegetation, which are extremely low in calories, they must spend most of their time eating, and, therefore, they have little time to sleep. Moreover, because of their size and the fact that they cannot burrow or climb trees, it is difficult for such animals to find safe sleeping places. Thus, they are safer awake. Animals that rely heavily on vision generally forage during the day and sleep at night. However, contrary to this theory, research with birds has failed to show any correlation across species between sleep time and metabolic rate; instead, it has shown a strong correlation between sleep time and risk of predation, which tends to support the preservation and protection theory discussed previously. sleep deprivation in rats results in breakdown of various bodily tissues, leading, within about three weeks, to death If sleep in itself serves purposes of energy conservation, protection from danger, and bodily restoration, then what is the function of REM sleep? 前兩個理論無法解釋rem Perhaps as their brains are developing in the relative isolation of the womb, they need to exercise sensory and motor pathways, and REM sleep is their means for doing that (Hobson, 1988). By the time of birth a neural inhibitory system matures, which inactivates most motor neurons during REM sleep and thus prevents most movements that would otherwise occur. However, the motor neurons to the eyes and to various internal structures, such as the heart, remain uninhibited, so eye movements and increased heart rate persist as observable effects of the brain’s activity. FIGURE 5.10 Changes in sleep over the course of life As shown here, both the total daily sleep time and the percentage of sleep time spent in REM sleep decrease as a person gets older. 不對，圖上三歲前rem減少沒錯但是慢波睡眠在增加，三歲后rem不變了也就是rem比例其實沒有減少反而增加了 We have no idea whether human fetuses, such as this one of 7 months, experience dream sensations or not, but we do know that they spend most?407 胎兒做夢的話會是什么樣的夢？以后也許有技術(shù)可以成像 electrical stimulation in portions of the cerebral cortex produced dream-like hallucinations in people who were awake (Penfield & Perot, 1963). A similar phenomenon may well occur in REM sleep Even if dreams are triggered by random events in the brain, the actual images, emotions, and story lines that constitute the dream are not random. They certainly contain elements based on the dreamer’ 產(chǎn)生的原因是無意義的，但產(chǎn)生的方式和內(nèi)容不一定是無意義的。動力因和質(zhì)料因。 One theory, founded on the observation that dreams so often involve fearful content and negative emotions, is that dreams somehow provide a means of rehearsing and resolving threatening experiences that either have happened or could happen in the person’s real life (Valli et al., 2008). engage in some degree of thought, just as it does in non- REM sleep. But now the thought becomes wrapped up in trying to make sense of the hallucinations. The result is the weaving of a story connecting one hallucination to the next—hence, the dream. Because of reduced mental capacity during sleep, the story is less logical than one the awake brain would develop, but it still contains some degree of logic. against the psychoanalytic? Do Dreams Have Functions? 睡眠，REM，夢，三者都有各自的理論和作用假設(shè) In fact, in one experiment, people were more likely to dream about a particular person if they were asked to suppress thoughts about that person just before going to sleep than if they were asked to think actively about that person just before going to sleep (Wegner et al., 2004). The most extreme nonsomniac in Meddis’s sample was a 70-year-old nurse who reported that for most of her life she had slept about 50 minutes per night. She was very active during the day and usually spent the night in quiet activities, such as reading or painting. To verify her nonsomnia, Meddis observed her continuously for a prolonged period in the sleep lab. She slept not at all the first 3 days and nights in the lab, remaining cheerful and talkative throughout. Finally, on the fourth night, she slept a total of 99 minutes and awoke feeling fully rested. A more recent study, of people who did well on an average of 3 to 6 hours of sleep per night, found that these people were unusually energetic and scored higher than average, in a positive direction, on an “Attitude to Life” questionnaire? 震驚。我國教科書缺了太多有意思的東西。居然現(xiàn)在才知道還有這種人。也許研究這些人的基因或神經(jīng)元模式可以改造人類睡眠時間。這也意味著前述的理論也許都是錯的?；蛘邔ΜF(xiàn)代社會的人類來說睡眠已經(jīng)不是必要。 The drive for that much sleep may have evolved for reasons other than body repair and brain growth, but that doesn’t mean we can ignore it. Between 1.5% and 2.5% of the hunter- gatherers did experience insomnia about once a year, considerably lower than rates for people from industrial countries, which is about 30% That number had fallen to 6.7 hours by 1990 and remained stable for the next 20 years (Jones, 2013), causing some to propose that the United States is facing a public health crisis (Barnes & Drake, 2015). The researchers reported that these people living a traditional lifestyle without artificial lighting go to sleep about three hours after sunset, usually awake before sunrise, sleep an average of about 6 to 7 hours a night, and rarely take naps. ?attending to the task and because their performance is often interrupted by brief moments of falling asleep, from which they arouse themselves. In general, stimulants such as caffeine, which counteract sleepiness, also remove the negative effects of sleep deprivation on the performance of such tasks. 所以并不是睡眠不足直接影響認(rèn)知能力，而是被睡眠驅(qū)力中介影響。 over a cycle of approximately 24 hours, even when surgically isolated from other parts of the brain (Herzog, 2007). If this nucleus is damaged, the affected animal or human will lose regular sleep–wake rhythms and instead sleep at rather random times over the 24-hour da 視交叉上核控制規(guī)律睡眠時間但不影響睡意產(chǎn)生 Melatonin is the hormone most directly linked to the circadian clock, and is often used by researchers as an index of the clock’s timing. This hormone, produced by the pineal gland, begins to be secreted into the bloodstream in the evening, typically about 2 hours before a person is ready to fall asleep, and is secreted at relatively high levels until approximately the time when the person is ready to awaken naturally in the These latter emotions are called self-conscious emotions, which seem to depend on an individual’s self-awareness (Draghi-Lorenz et al., 2001; Lewis, 2000). Some researchers refer to them as other-conscious emotions (Saarni et al., 2006) because they seem to be related to the expectations and opinions of other people for one’s behavior.? Sometimes an emotional feeling is experienced as free-floating rather than directed at a particular object; if it lasts for a sufficiently long period, it is referred to as a mood. In some cases, everyday language provides different terms for moods and emotions that have similar underlying feelings. A feeling of being tense, jittery, and unhappy may be labeled as anxiety when it is a free-floating mood but as fear when it is an emotion associated with an object such as a spider or an upcoming examination. One’s fear of heights, fear of death, and fear of others’ judgments, for example, may be experienced as qualitatively different from one another. Darwin proposed that emotions are universal and have species-specific adaptive functions, reflected by facial expressions. 為什么所有動物的表情進(jìn)化在臉部而不是別的地方？也許是因為感官要接收信息必須直面對象，所以只有感官最密集的臉部最方便傳達(dá)信息。接收與輸出信息的部位重疊，效率最大。除了進(jìn)食和眨眼，臉部肌肉基本閑置，別的部位肌肉得隨時待命甚至一直激活比如走路或爬行。 Implicit in the positive-negative dimension of emotional feelings is the idea that emotions motivate us to approach objects that can help us, and to avoid or repel objects that hinder u Conversely, in the emotion of disgust—which involves a rejection of some object in the environment—the field of vision and the nasal passages narrow, cutting off the offending sight or odor (see Figure 5.14b). 恐懼和厭惡都針對某一對象的是負(fù)性情緒，區(qū)別是前者的對象很可能對個人有危險，后者不危險 The expression of fear, for example, involves a widening of the eyes and an opening of the nasal passages, which increases the field of vision and sensitivity to odors (see Figure 5.14a). Moreover, brain imaging studies have shown that a certain portion of the somatosensory area of the cerebral cortex, which becomes active when a person is sensing his or her own bodily state, also becomes active when a person is consciously assessing his or her own emotional state (Critchely et al., More specifically, he proposed that perception and thought about the environment influence the type of emotion felt, and that sensory feedback about the degree of bodily arousal influences the intensity of the emotion felt (see the bottom portion of Figure 5.15). In the 1960s, Stanley Schachter developed a theory of emotion that can be understood as a variation of James’s theory. Paul Ekman (1984) proposed a theory of emotions that is similar to James’s peripheral feedback theory but focuses particularly on the role of the face. Ekman and his colleagues (1983) found that induced facial expressions not only can alter self-reports of emotion but also can produce physiological responses throughout the body that are consistent with the induced expression. For instance, anger, whether relived or mimicked by facial molding, was accompanied by increases in skin temperature that did not occur for the other emotions (consistent with evidence that blood tends to flow into the skin during anger). However, some visual input goes directly from the thalamus to the amygdala, bypassing the cerebral cortex. They also failed to distinguish in the usual ways between foods and nonfoods or between appropriate and inappropriate objects for sexual attention. 杏仁核主管的情緒很廣？性欲和食欲也與他有關(guān)？不過這是猴子。 The amygdala may also be activated, but less so, by stimuli that induce positive emotions, and may be more generally involved in processing the relevance of stimuli, both positive and negative (Cunningham & Borsch, 2012). Similarly, people who have damage to the visual cortex have been shown to respond emotionally to visual stimuli that they could not consciously see (Anders et al., 2004). The prefrontal cortex receives input from the amygdala and from the somatosensory cortex, and such input provides it with information about the amygdala’s assessment of the stimulus and the body’s state of arousal. Researchers have found that anger is generally associated with greater activation of the left prefrontal cortex than the right, especially if the subjects are given instructions that lead them to visualize possible responses to the anger-provoking stimulus (Harmon-Jones et al., 2006). The distinction is fuzzy, however, because during the earliest steps of taking in stimulus information, we already begin to organize it in ways useful for extracting meaning. physical stimulus→physiological response→sensory experience temperature (with separate receptors for sensing hot and cold) and pain, neither of which is included in Aristotle’s five. Other senses omitted by Aristotle have to do with body position and the body’s internal environment. We have a sense of balance (vestibular), mediated by a mechanism in the inner ear, and a sense of limb position and movement (proprioception), mediated by receptors in muscles and joints. For some senses, receptors are simply the sensitive ends of sensory neurons; for others, they are separate cells that form synapses upon sensory neurons. For some senses, receptors all exist in a specific, localized sensory organ, such as the ear, eye, or nose; for others, they exist in a wide variety of locations. Pain receptors, for example, exist not just throughout the skin but also in muscles, tendons, joints, and many other places.? If we could somehow rewire those connections, sending your optic nerves to your auditory brain areas and your auditory nerves to your visual brain areas, you would hear light and see sound. 不對。雪貂的實驗，視覺神經(jīng)接到聽皮層仍然是看見光，只不過聽皮層功能變?yōu)榱艘曈X。 in such a way that information about the quantity and quality of the stimulus is preserved in the pattern of action potentials sent to the brain. In contrast, the coding of stimulus quality occurs because qualitatively different stimuli optimally activate different sets of neurons. In the ear, different receptors are most sensitive to different sound frequencies. 但問題是存在性質(zhì)不同的感受器不能證明主觀經(jīng)驗也是質(zhì)的區(qū)別，因為每個感受器都同時對所有刺激反應(yīng)只是程度不同，主觀經(jīng)驗是所有類型感受器強(qiáng)度的模式而不是一個類型感受器的反應(yīng)。亮度都對色調(diào)有影響。響度對音高也是。質(zhì)性和量性很難區(qū)分。兩個顏色之間總是可以無限細(xì)分 The change in sensitivity that occurs when a given set of sensory receptors and neurons is either strongly stimulated or relatively unstimulated for a length of time is called sensory adaptation. 維持在高強(qiáng)度刺激時感受性降低，vice versa。但這都是對絕對量的適應(yīng)，也就是恒定刺激的適應(yīng)。是否會對變化速度適應(yīng)？也就是說是否會對刺激量變化的加速度敏感？ However, some adaptation is mediated by changes further inward in the central nervous system. As a result, senses are more responsive to changing than to unchanging stimulation. 總結(jié)一下，主觀感覺這個因變量取決于三個自變量，物理刺激的質(zhì)，量，感受器接受刺激的累積時間。前兩個是絕對量，由刺激決定，時間是相對量。三者中任意一個都會影響其余兩個。每一個感覺通道的主觀經(jīng)驗與三個自變量的關(guān)系函數(shù)理論上可以轉(zhuǎn)化成一個四維坐標(biāo)上的曲線。 In other words, the women were smelling this substance at concentrations less than one hundred-thousandth of the minimal concentration that the men could smell. 這只是味覺，但無法證明女性在所有感覺上都比男性敏感。而且只是練習(xí)后的下降，練習(xí)前差別不大。要注意的是這里隨著時間感受性提高，與感覺適應(yīng)相反。區(qū)別也許在于前者是練習(xí)效應(yīng)，隨著實驗進(jìn)行刺激不斷降低難度提高，而感覺適應(yīng)的刺激不變。 Smell and taste are called chemical senses because the stimuli for them are chemical molecules. The chemical senses are first and foremost systems for warning and attracting. They play on our drives and emotions more than on our intellects. The connections from the olfactory bulb to the limbic system are so strong, in fact, that the limbic system was at one time referred to as the rhinencephalon, which literally means “nose brain.” 是否嗅覺不靈的人會有情緒問題，情緒淡漠？慢性鼻炎或通路受損的。待查文獻(xiàn)。 Thus, the ratio indicates the type of odorant (quality of the smell), while the total amount of activity indicates the amount of odorant (quantity, or intensity of the smell). Smell and taste inputs converge in a certain portion of the orbitofrontal cortex, and this area appears to be critical for the psychological experience of flavor (Rolls, 2004). Remarkably, we experience flavor as coming from the mouth, where the food exists, and as indistinguishable from taste, even though it actually comes from the olfactory epithelium (Shepherd, 2006). 口舌的觸覺對嗅覺的定位起到了決定性作用。就像視線決定了擴(kuò)音器的聲音知覺方位。 Many elderly people complain of loss in ability to taste foods, but tests typically show that their real loss is not taste but smell (Bartoshuk & Beauchamp, 1994). Such findings are consistent with theories that olfaction serves one or more special functions related to reproduction in women, such as choosing mates, avoiding toxins during pregnancy, or bonding with infants. Such experiments have revealed that parents can tell which of their children wore the shirt, children can tell which of their siblings wore it, and people generally can distinguish between the odors of two strangers (Weisfeld et al., 2003). 想起那個紀(jì)錄片里能聞到帕金森病氣味的人 Thus, by choosing mates that smell most different from themselves, mice choose mates that (a) are not likely to be close relatives of themselves, and (b) will add much new genetic variation to the mix of disease-fighting cells that develop in the offspring. These findings suggest that women are capable of using a man’s odor in evaluating his potential worth as a mating partner, whether they are conscious of this fact or not. Brothers and sisters showed mutual aversion to the odor of their opposite-sex siblings, fathers were aversive to the odor of their daughters (but not their sons), and daughters to the odor of their fathers (but not their mothers). symmetrical (and typically more attractive) men,? Whereas the main olfactory epithelium is designed to distinguish somewhat imprecisely among many thousands of different odorants, the vomeronasal organ appears to be designed for very precise recognition of, and exquisite sensitivity to, a small number of specific substances—the species’ pheromones (Buck, 2000b). One theory is that the function of hair in these locations is to retain the secretions and provide a large surface area from which they can evaporate, so as to increase their effectiveness as odorants (Stoddart, 1990). Sex-attractant pheromones are valuable for animals that mate only at certain times of the year or only when the female is ovulating, as a means of synchronizing the sex drives of males and females to maximize the chance of conception. Humans have taken a different evolutionary route, such that sexual drive and behavior are not tied to a season, cycle, or variable physiological state. For that reason, perhaps, there is little or no need for us to advertise by scent our readiness to mate. 也許是語言替代了嗅覺 Some insects have taste receptors on their feet, which allow them to taste what they are walking on. Fish have taste receptors not just in their mouths but all over their bodies (Hara, 1994). They can taste their prey before they see it, and they use taste to help them track it down.? Most people have between 2,000 and 10,000 taste buds, about two-thirds of which are on the tongue and the rest of which are on the roof of the mouth and in the opening of the throat (Herness & Gilbertson, 1999). More recently, fat has been suggested as a sixth taste, with its own sensation and class of taste buds (Keast & Costanzo, 2015). Many bitter-tasting plants (hemlock is a famous example) and some animals (notably some species of caterpillars), as part of their own evolution, have concentrated toxic substances into their tissues— substances that can harm or kill animals that eat them. 有意思的是，這種特性并不能阻止個體在當(dāng)下被吃，但可以在未來的進(jìn)化中淘汰掉自己的捕食者。 Protein (the main natural source of umami flavor) is essential for building and restoring tissues. Individuals that avoided all bitter tastes would lose the nutritional value of plants that taste bitter but are safe to eat. Through observation and experience, people and other plant-eating animals can learn to eat and enjoy bitter foods that have no toxins or low levels of toxins. When you see, hear, smell, taste, or touch something, you experience the sensation as coming from outside yourself (from the thing you are seeing, hearing, smelling, tasting, or touching); but when you feel pain, you experience it as coming from your own body. Pain is not only a sense but also a perception, an emotion, and a drive. reflexive responses—such as the automatic withdrawal of the hand from a hot stove—independent of conscious experience. Others send their axons to the thalamus When your skin is pricked or burned, you feel two separate waves of pain: a sharp, highly localized first pain, followed (1 or 2 seconds later) by a dull, burning, more diffuse, longer-lasting second pain. The first is mediated by A-delta fibers, and the second by the slower C fibers (Basbaum & Jessell, 2000). The C fibers also respond in a more prolonged way to a variety of chemicals that are released by damaged or infected cells, accounting for the persistent pain that accompanies burns, wounds, and infections. People with damage to the cingulate cortex and the insular cortex experience a condition called asymbolia for pain (Price, 2000). They can perceive a painful stimulus and describe it as such, identify the location of the pain, describe its qualities, and rate its intensity; but they do not feel a normal desire to escape the pain. The pain doesn’t bother them. People with prefrontal lobe damage feel and respond to the immediate threat and unpleasantness of pain, but they do not worry about it, just as they do not worry about or make plans based on other experiences (Price, 2000). This suggests that the brain’s mechanism for experiencing pain and assigning it to a particular body location can be activated without sensory input from that part of the body. In fact, the lack of sensory input might trigger phantom- limb pain by removing a source of inhibition to the pain mechanisms of the brain. 正常的身體感覺可以告訴大腦肢體正常。失去了感覺就失去了這一信息，大腦會解讀為肢體不正常。疼痛不僅包括自下而上，還有自上而下。也許感覺之間相互抑制，正常感覺會抑制痛覺，就像痛覺抑制癢。somatosensory失去了肢體的輸入，也許痛覺區(qū)域會自發(fā)放電。 Electrical stimulation of the PAG has a powerful analgesic (pain-reducing) effect—so powerful, in fact, that abdominal surgery can be performed without drugs in animals that are receiving such stimulation (Mason, 2001). Evolutionary psychologists hypothesize that this pain enhancement effect may have evolved to motivate ill individuals to rest rather than move around, in order to conserve energy needed to fight the disease (Kluger, 1991). For example, soldiers severely wounded in battle often do not notice their wounds until the battle is over. Faced with a predator or similar threat, a human or other animal cannot afford to nurse a wound or favor it by limping;? Endorphins are believed to inhibit pain by acting both in the PAG and at the places where pain-carrying neurons enter the spinal cord and lower brainstem. He hangs from this rope, swinging back and forth, while he blesses the children and the crops of the village. In all of these cases, the analgesic effect did not occur when subjects were injected with a drug that blocks the actions of endorphins. In one experiment both the reduced pain and the sense of euphoria failed to occur in runners who had been treated with an endorphin-blocking drug (Janal et al., 1984). A less dramatic example, in cultures where faith is more often placed in science and medicine, is the placebo effect on pain. ?this placebo effect did not occur in subjects who were treated with an endorphin-blocking drug (Levine et al., 1979). In some animals, such as moths, sound is sensed through modified touch receptors located on flexible patches of skin that vibrate in response to sound waves. In humans and other mammals, the special patches of skin for hearing have migrated to a location inside the head,? In some animals, such as moths, sound is sensed through modified touch receptors located on flexible patches of skin that vibrate in response to sound waves. In humans and other mammals, the special patches of skin for hearing have migrated to a location inside the head,? Because the oval window has only about one-thirtieth the area of the tympanic membrane, the pressure (force per unit area) that is funneled to it by the ossicles is about 30 times greater than the pressure on the eardrum. Thus, the main function of the middle ear is to increase the amount of pressure that sound waves exert upon the inner ear so that transduction can occur. up-and-down waving motion of the basilar membrane, which is very flexible. The tectorial membrane, which runs parallel to the basilar membrane, is less flexible and does not move when the basilar membrane moves.? The other form of deafness is sensorineural deafness, which results from damage to the hair cells of the cochlea or damage to the auditory neurons. Congenital deafness (deafness present at birth) may involve damage to either the hair cells or the auditory neurons. The first, called conduction deafness, occurs when the ossicles of the middle ear become rigid and cannot carry sounds inward from the tympanic membrane to the cochlea. It is important to note that cochlear implants are effective when deafness has resulted from the destruction of hair cells, but they do not help individuals whose auditory nerve has been destroyed. The most likely answer is that the cells coding high frequencies are acted upon by all sounds, while those coding low frequencies are acted upon only by low-frequency sounds. There is now good evidence that the primary receptor cells for hearing are the inner row of hair cells and that the outer three rows serve mostly a different function. When these outer rows are activated, they stiffen in a manner that amplifies and sharpens the traveling wave ( That is, each neuron there is maximally responsive to sounds of a particular frequency, and the neurons are systematically arranged such that high-frequency tones activate neurons at one end of this cortical area and low-frequency tones activate neurons at the other end. intraparietal sulcus, which receives input from the primary auditory cortex. This part of the brain is involved in both music perception and visual space perception. In one research study, people who described themselves as “tone deaf” and performed poorly on a test of ability to distinguish among different musical notes also performed poorly on a visual-spatial test that required them to mentally rotate pictured objects in order to match them to pictures of the same objects from other viewpoints (Douglas & Bilkey, 2007). Perhaps it is no coincidence that we (and also people who speak other languages) describe pitch in spatial terms—“high” and “l(fā)ow.” Our brain may, in some way, interpret a high note as high and a low note as low, using part of the same neural system as is used to perceive three-dimensional space. Heredity determines the general form of the tonotopic map, but experience determines the specific amount of cortex devoted to any particular range of frequencies. People can attend to one voice and ignore another much more easily if the two voices come from different locations in the room than if they come from the same location (Feng & Ratnam, 2000). Even newborn infants do this (Muir & Field, 1979), indicating that the ability to localize a sound does not require learning, although this ability improves markedly by the end of the first year (Johnson et al., 2005). Many auditory neurons in the brainstem receive input from both ears. Some of these neurons respond most to waves that reach both ears at once; others respond most to waves that reach one ear some microseconds—ranging from just a few on up to about 700—before, or after, reaching the other ear. You identify the word not from the absolute amplitude or frequency of the sound waves, but from certain patterns of change in these that occur over time as the word is spoken. For example, some neurons in areas near the primary auditory area respond only to certain combinations of frequencies, others only to rising or falling pitches, others only to brief clicks or bursts of sound, and still others only to sound sources that are moving in a particular direction (Baumgart et al., 1999; Phillips, 1989). One way to make sense of this phenomenon is to assume that much of our perceptual experience of hearing derives from a brief auditory sensory memory, which lasts for a matter of seconds and is modifiable. Most remarkably, even words that occur after the missing phoneme can influence which phoneme is heard. Not surprisingly, phonemic restoration has been found to be much more reliable for words that are very much expected to occur in the sentence than for words that are less expected (Sivonen et al., 2006). Even when they listened repeatedly, with instructions to determine what sound was missing, subjects were unable to detect that any sound was missing. A limiting factor in these illusions is that the gap in the sentence or tune must be filled with noise; it can’t be a silent gap. In everyday life the sounds we listen to are often masked by bits of noise, never by bits of silence, so perhaps illusory sound restorations are an evolutionary adaptation? words generate a momentary false memory of hearing, earlier—a phoneme that wasn’t actually present—and that memory is indistinguishable in type from memories of phonemes that actually did occur. Illusory restoration has also been demonstrated in music perception. People hear a missing note in a familiar tune as if it were present These organs may have initially enabled circadian rhythms Even single-celled organisms contain chemicals that respond to light and alter the organism’s activity in survival-promoting ways. additional function of responding to shadows, which could help detect predators. With further natural selection, the skin covering the eyespots became transparent, allowing in both more light and clearer shadows. The spots then gradually moved inward, into fluid-filled pits underneath the transparent skin, reducing glare and enabling the animal to detect the direction from which changes in illumination were coming. Subsequent evolution led to the thickening of one of the membranes covering each eyespot to form a crude lens, which may have served merely to magnify the light reaching the photoreceptors. With further evolutionary refinement, the lens became capable of projecting an image onto the lining of photoreceptors.? The light rays that diverge from any given point on the surface of an object are brought back together (focused) at a distinct point on the retina A white object in sunlight at noon reflects roughly 100 million times as much light as the same object reflects on a starlit but moonless night (Riggs, 1965), yet we can see the object in either condition. The iris contributes to these adaptive processes by dilating (widening) the pupil in dim light and constricting it in bright light. A fully dilated pupil allows in about 16 times as much light as a fully constricted pupil (Matlin & Foley, 1997). Temporary changes in the sensitivity of visual neurons that receive input from the receptor cells also contribute? For them, any color that they can see can be matched by varying the proportion of just two different wavelengths of light (see Figure 7.7). There is an upside to some forms of color blindness, however. Color-blind people are not easily fooled by camouflage; in World War II the U.S. Army even assigned color-blind personnel to detect camouflage colors that people with normal color vision could not see (Reit, 1978). A mixture of wavelengths from the blue and yellow parts of the spectrum, or from the green and red parts, appears white (colorless but bright) because the two sets of wavelengths cancel each other out in their effects on color detectors but act in concert to excite brightness detectors. ▄ Ultraviolet mouths These starling nestlings’ gaping beaks and mouths would appear black to us, but, as shown in this UV photograph, they reflect ultraviolet light intensely. They are ideally designed to attract the attention of the mother starling without attracting that of mammalian predators who cannot see ultraviolet light. To convince yourself that this adaptive process occurs early in the visual pathway, before the inputs from the two eyes converge, follow the instructions in the second paragraph of the caption of Figure 7.9. 那么皮層是否會適應(yīng)？ As an exercise, try constructing diagrams that would produce B?Y+ and R?G+ opponent neurons. controlling the lens? Also, convergence (both eyes looking at the same object) and coordination (both eyes following a moving stimulus in a coordinated fashion) are poor at birth, but each develops rapidly and is adultlike by 6 months of age (Aslin & Jackson, 1979). experience-expectant processes ( However, if kittens are deprived of visual experience immediately after opening their eyes, they gradually lose their sensitivity to orientation. Experience (or lack of experience) changes the structure and organization of their brains. Shortly after surgery, they can tell the difference between a square and a triangle only by counting the corners (Carlson & Hyvarinen, 1983; Von Senden, 1960). Moreover, even for those babies who had cataracts removed early, some aspects of face processing were impaired (Le Grand et al., 2001). This finding suggests that there may be different sensitive periods for the brain areas associated with visual acuity and those associated with processing faces.? The animal—usually a cat or a monkey—is anesthetized, so it is unconscious, but its eyes are kept open and the neural connections from the eyes to the relevant brain neurons are intact. Treisman and other modern perceptual psychologists would not disagree with this point. In our conscious experience, we do typically perceive wholes before we perceive parts; the building up of the wholes from the parts occurs through unconscious mental processes. They would also agree that the whole is different from the sum of its parts because the whole is defined by the way the parts are organized, not just by the parts themselves. 特征整合是無意識的。格式塔說的知覺指的是知覺意識到的部分。treismen雖然強(qiáng)調(diào)特征，但也有整合，即組織后的整體。 This rather unspecific principle encompasses the other principles listed above but also includes other ways by which the perceptual system organizes stimuli into their simplest (most easily explained) arrangement. The unconscious-inference explanation of this is that the white square is more needed in b than in a to make sense of the stimulus input. The arrangement of four black angular objects is more likely to occur in everyday experience than is the arrangement of four disks with wedges cut out in b. For example, visual stimuli that produce illusory contours activate edge-detector neurons in the primary visual cortex that are receiving input from precisely that part of the stimulus where the illusory contour is seen (Albert, 2007; Lee, 2002). visual form agnosia can see that something is present and can identify some of its elements, such as its color and brightness, but cannot perceive its shape. They are unable to describe or draw the outlines of objects or patterns that they are shown. In contrast, people with visual object agnosia can describe and draw the shapes of objects that they are shown, but still cannot identify the objects It’s interesting to note that the term agnosia was coined in the late nineteenth century by Sigmund Freud, who then was a young, little-known neurologist (Goodale & Milner, 2004). Apparently the “where-and-how” pathway, which was intact in this woman, is capable of calculating the sizes and shapes of objects, as well as their places, but does not make that information available to the conscious mind. 是否可以說背側(cè)通路偏無意識，腹側(cè)偏意識？而且意識與無意識有質(zhì)的區(qū)別，意識并不是像精神分析所謂的無意識冰川的上層，而是根本編碼著本質(zhì)上不同的內(nèi)容。意識與無意識并不是上下級關(guān)系，而是一定程度上平行。 ?and often they can describe verbally where the object is located, but they have great difficulty using visual input to coordinate their movements. where不都存儲在背側(cè)，一部分可以言語意識表達(dá)的where信息存儲在腹側(cè)，但是應(yīng)用這些信息指導(dǎo)行為的功能存儲在背側(cè) So when we say there are special psychological and brain mechanisms people use in processing faces, we mean upright faces—the way people typically see faces every day. 也許是大腦里存儲了一個臉的原型，而這個原型當(dāng)然是從知覺經(jīng)驗抽象出來的，是正置的，而不是抽象的幾何關(guān)系。人臉識別時我們是與這個原型對比，所以任何細(xì)微的差別都很容易知覺到。有點像多巴胺通路和感覺適應(yīng)對變化的敏感，機(jī)制都是類似。大腦對長時間接受的刺激會形成預(yù)期或習(xí)慣，形成一個基線水平，于是任何上下波動都變得更敏感（比如89和91相差不大，但如果以90為基線，則負(fù)一和正一就形成很大的反差）。在倒置的人臉識別中相當(dāng)于取消了這個基線，不再能與記憶中的原型對照。只能一個個特征對比序列加工而不是整體的自動化的。 Rather than reflecting racism, it reflects experience with viewing and remembering faces from one’s own versus from different races. 人臉原型的布置方式是天生的，但原型細(xì)節(jié)是經(jīng)驗修正的 In contrast, the occipital face area appears to be responsible for processing new faces and distinguishing faces from other objects, and is strongly connected to the fusiform face area (Liu et al., 2010). The effects of unconscious inference occur through top-down control mechanisms in the brain. 格式塔認(rèn)為知覺加工是先天，但這里自上而下加工是后天。其實格式塔知覺組織原則很難排除后天影響。但應(yīng)該有一部分是先天的。 Prosopagnosia can be the result of a stroke, although some people are born with the condition (Duchaine & Nakayama, 2006). A 2006 German study revealed that the prevalence of hereditary prosopagnosia is as high as 2% in the population? 如果有天生臉盲的話就否定了FFA區(qū)域只是對熟悉物體的識別這一說法。Ffa至少主要是針對人臉的，即使后天經(jīng)驗可以讓它產(chǎn)生別的功能 ?“Many of them had not realized that they were dealing with a specific dysfunction. They have learned to recognize people from voice, gait, habits, gestalt, clothing, accessories, name, and other non-facial cues” (p. For us to see and recognize objects, the brain must pick up from the optic nerves the relevant features of the object and integrate those features into 物體識別也可以看成格式塔原則或者自上而下加工的具體應(yīng)用 A major step toward answering this question was the publication of a treatise on vision by Hermann von Helmholtz (1867/1962), the same German physiologist who developed the trichromatic theory of color vision. 赫爾姆霍茲的四個理論，1視覺三色，2聽覺共鳴，3神經(jīng)速度，4深度知覺 More recently, researchers have found that neurons in an area of the visual cortex close to the primary visual area respond best to stimuli that are presented to both eyes at slightly disparate locations on the retina (Thomas et al., 2002). Pictorial Cues Motion parallax depends on the geometry of true three- dimensionality and cannot be used to depict depth in two-dimensional pictures. 單眼視差分為兩部分，三維和二維。前者是運動后者靜止。 farther away than those that are displaced from the horizon in either direction (either below it or above it). Ifaskedtojudgedistance,mostpeoplesaythatthehorizonmoonlooks closer (because they know that the moon doesn’t really change size, so its large apparent size must be due to closeness). This explanation has been called the farther-larger-nearer theory? 意識作為一個interpreter只能為無意識擦屁股。但這些理論應(yīng)該都可以用實驗驗證。比如在實驗室創(chuàng)造一個月亮錯覺，把月亮換成別的物體，這時如果被試意識言語報告不再是地平線的物體更近而是更遠(yuǎn)了，那么這個"遠(yuǎn)大近"的理論就得到證明。感覺驗證也不難，為什么現(xiàn)在月亮錯覺還沒有定論？待查文獻(xiàn)。 Even today, the main objection to this explanation of the moon illusion is that people do not consciously see the horizon moon as farther away than the zenith moon (Hershenson, 2003). When people see the large- appearing horizon moon and are asked whether it seems farther away or closer than usual, they usually say closer.? Subjects were told that the bimodal trials (tones and lights) were simply mistakes made by the experimenter. When the bimodal trials were presented, subjects pressed the “l(fā)ight key” on 49 of 50 trials? 考慮到聽覺傳導(dǎo)速度其實比視覺快。即使這樣還是勝不過視覺。也就意味著視覺可以在聽覺已經(jīng)開始處理后強(qiáng)行接管。也許可以試著把視覺刺激延后，到多長的間隔可以抵消視覺的主導(dǎo)效應(yīng)？這個臨界點處在唐德斯三階段的哪個位置？是在決策階段（辨別和選擇）還是反應(yīng)階段？不過還有一個變量是刺激強(qiáng)度等其他屬性。光強(qiáng)和聲強(qiáng)能否匹配。如何用心理物理法匹配不同通道刺激？待查文獻(xiàn)。 infants as young as 2 months of age are able to match a person’s lip movements to the corresponding sounds (Kuhl & Meltzoff, 1982), although this ability improves with age and experience McGurk effect (McGurk & MacDonald, 1976). This is experienced when one hears a person speak one sound (the phoneme “ba,” for example), but watches a face articulating a different sound (the phoneme “ga,” for example).? 視覺不僅指導(dǎo)聽覺的方位來源，還可以指導(dǎo)更細(xì)節(jié)的特征即語音知覺。有點像stroop，stroop是兩個視覺刺激競爭，文字勝過顏色。Mcgurk是口型視覺勝過了聽覺。也許可以把Mcgurk改成stroop，即一邊看著口型但是復(fù)述同時聽到的與口型沖突的語音。對人類來說，語言雖然來源于聲音，但大部分時候卻是與視覺聯(lián)系在一起的，比如書面文字和生活中互相交流時的口型變化模式。單純靠聽覺分辨語音的情況很少。聽覺往往不夠純粹考慮到各種噪音。所以人類進(jìn)化出了各種語音知覺的機(jī)制避免過度依賴聽覺（比如前文的缺失音位自動補(bǔ)全的錯覺）。與語境一樣，口型也成了一個輔助語音知覺的因素。 Multisensory neurons are neurons that are influenced by stimuli from more than one sense modality, such as those discovered in the superior colliculus of cats, and later of other mammals (Stein & Meredith, 1993; Wallace et al., 2012). 有點像前面雙眼視差的神經(jīng)元，只不過雙眼視差是同一感覺系統(tǒng)內(nèi)的兩個器官間的整合，這里是不同感覺系統(tǒng)間的。 In other words, there is an implicit multisensory match between a visual stimulus and sound, or perhaps the muscle patterns we use to make those sounds. The fact that 2.5-year-old toddlers—who can’t yet read—also show the Bouba/Kiki effect indicates that it is not due to the appearance of the letters, but to the sounds of the words ( 但字母形狀似乎與讀音也有一定關(guān)系。比如o。也許字母形成最開始與口型就有一定關(guān)系。包括后來的造詞過程?？谛停帜?，物體視覺形狀或?qū)傩裕@三者多少都有相互關(guān)系。 Several hundred years ago such claims would brand one as a witch, and in more enlightened times experiences such as “seeing sounds” were apt to be viewed as hallucinations and perhaps a sign of schizophrenia. Since the 1980s or so, however, the situation has changed substantially, as modern science has taken the phenomenon of synesthesia seriously. Current estimates are that between 1 and 4% of the population are synesthetes, and, unlike schizophrenia, synesthesia does not interfere with normal functioning and is not classified as a mental disorder Most people with synesthesia find their synesthetic experiences to be emotionally positive. They report that they have been synesthetic since childhood, and it apparently is a stable characteristic, lasting a lifetime (Hochel & Milán, 2008). There is evidence that, for some synesthetes, specific grapheme- color pairings are linked to childhood toys containing colored letters (Witthoft & Winawer, 2013). Synesthesia runs in families, suggesting a genetic component, but it often skips generations. Moreover, monozygotic (genetically identical) twins do not always share the trait (Smilek et al., 2005), indicating that the genetic route to synesthesia is not a simple one. In one large-scale study, synesthesia was found to be disproportionally frequent in artists (Rich et al., 2005), something that had been anecdotally reported earlier. For the most common type of synesthesia, grapheme-color, the cross- activation is proposed to occur within the fusiform gyrus, between one area that represents the visual appearance of graphemes (numbers and letters) and an adjacent area associated with color vision, called V4 (Ramachandran & Hubbard, 2001; see Figure 7.39). One hypothesis related to the cross-activation theory was originally proposed by Daphne and Charles Maurer (1988), who suggested that human infants are synesthetes, having many neural connections between different sensory areas. As children develop, most of these synaptic connections get pruned, resulting in increased segregation of the senses (Holcombe et al., 2009; Maurer & Mondloch, 2005). Adult synesthetes are people who fail to display the typical pruning of these cross-modal connections. In support of this, we know that for typically developing children the number of synapses in the sensory and association areas of the brain peak in childhood and decline thereafter ( A finding consistent with Maurer and Maurer’s interpretation is that adult synesthetes have greater structural connectivity (as reflected by patterns of white matter, the myelin coating on axons, described in Chapter 4) for different parts of the brain than non-synesthetes (Rouw & Scholte, 2007). Other brain imaging research has shown differences in gray matter (neurons) between different areas of the brains of synesthetes and non- synesthetes (Banissy et al., 2012). Much is still to be learned about the neuroscience of synesthesia, but the more we learn, the more complex the picture becomes. For example, a recent review of the neuroscience literature concluded that a network of brain areas, rather than just a single area, is involved in synesthesia? Ramachandran and his colleagues (Ramachandran & Brang,