Relations between ancient Japan and China have a long history, and in certain periods the exchange of political, religious and cultural practices between the two was intense. China, the much older state and the more developed, passed on to Japan (sometimes indirectly via Korea) a long list of ideas including rice cultivation, writing, Buddhism, centralised government models, civil service examinations, temple architecture, clothing, art, literature, music, and eating habits. Trade relations greatly outlasted cultural and diplomatic ties, with Japan beginning to develop its own unique cultural path from the 9th century CE onwards.

? ? ? ? ? 古代日本和中國的關(guān)系由來已久，在某些時期，兩國政治、宗教和文化習(xí)俗的交流十分頻繁。中國是一個更古老的國家，也是一個更發(fā)達(dá)的國家，它向日本傳遞了一系列的思想與技術(shù)，包括水稻種植、文字、佛教、中央集權(quán)的政府模式、公務(wù)員考試、寺廟建筑、服裝、藝術(shù)、文學(xué)、音樂和飲食習(xí)慣。雙方的貿(mào)易關(guān)系大大超過了文化和外交關(guān)系，從公元9世紀(jì)起，日本開始發(fā)展自己獨(dú)特的文化道路。

早期接觸

At the end of the Jomon Period, from around 400 BCE (or even earlier), Japan's first foreign contact was in the form of migrants who began to arrive from continental Asia, especially the Korean peninsula, probably driven by the wars caused by Chinese expansion and between rival kingdoms. They brought with them new pottery, bronze, iron, and improved metalworking techniques which produced more efficient farming tools and better weaponry and armour.

? ? ? ? ? 在繩文時代末期，從公元前400年左右（甚至更早）開始，日本的第一次對外接觸是以移民的形式出現(xiàn)的，他們開始從亞洲大陸，特別是朝鮮半島來到日本，可能是受到中國擴(kuò)張和敵對王國之間的戰(zhàn)爭的推動。他們帶來了新的陶器、青銅器、鐵器和改進(jìn)的金屬加工技術(shù)，生產(chǎn)出更有效的農(nóng)具和更好的武器與盔甲。

At a political level, Japan was beginning its first attempts at international relations (kokusai kankei) by the end of the Yayoi Period (c. 300 BCE or earlier to c. 250 CE). According to the c. 82 CE Han Shu ('History Of Han'), envoys and tribute were sent to the Chinese commanderies in northern Korea by the Wa, as the fledgeling confederation of small states in southern and western Japan was then known, the most important of which was Yamato. This is the earliest textual reference to Japan. A second early Chinese source is the 297 CE Wei Chih ('History of Wei'). The first tribute missions to China are recorded in 57 and 107 CE. One Japanese ruler known to have sent embassies to Chinese territory (238, 243, and c. 248 CE) and the most famous figure of the period was Queen Himiko (r. c. 189-248 CE). During the subsequent Kofun Period (c. 250 CE - 538 CE) envoys continued to be sent to China: in 425 CE, 478 CE and then eleven more up to 502 CE. Yamato Japan was slowly establishing an international diplomatic presence.

? ? ? ? ? 在政治層面上，日本在彌生時代（約公元前300年或更早，至約公元250年）結(jié)束時開始首次嘗試建立國際關(guān)系（Kokusai kankei）。根據(jù)約公元82年的《漢書》，和族（當(dāng)時日本南部和西部剛成立的小國聯(lián)盟，其中最重要的是大和）向朝鮮北部的中國統(tǒng)帥部派遣了使節(jié)，并帶去了貢品。這是最早的關(guān)于日本的文字記載。第二個早期的中國資料是公元297年的《魏志》（《魏國史》）。第一次向中國進(jìn)貢的任務(wù)記錄在公元57年和107年。當(dāng)時的日本統(tǒng)治者向中國領(lǐng)土派遣了使團(tuán)（公元238年、243年和約248年），這一時期最著名的人物是卑彌呼女王（約公元189-248年）。在隨后的古墳時期（約公元250年-公元538年），日本繼續(xù)向中國派遣使節(jié)：公元425年、公元478年，然后到公元502年，又有11次到訪記錄。大和日本正在慢慢地建立國際外交關(guān)系。

飛鳥時代與佛教

The Asuka Period (538-710 CE) saw a stepping up of cultural exchange with the introduction of laws and penal codes based on those in China, the creation of a permanent capital city, and the nationalisation of land. There was also the introduction of Buddhism to Japan sometime in the 6th century CE, traditionally in 552 CE. It was actually introduced by a Korean monk but was seen as a Chinese faith and was officially adopted by Emperor Yomei (r. 585-587 CE). Buddhism reinforced the idea of a layered society with different levels of social status, with the emperor very much at the top and protected by the Four Guardian Kings of Buddhist law. The aristocracy could also conveniently claim that they enjoyed their privileged position in society because they had accumulated merit in a previous life.

? ? ? ? ? 飛鳥時代（公元538-710年），隨著基于中國的法律和刑法的引入，文化交流的加強(qiáng)，永久性首都的建立，以及土地的國有化。在公元6世紀(jì)的某個時候，佛教也被引入日本，傳統(tǒng)上是在公元552年。它實際上是由一個韓國僧侶傳入的，但被視為是中國的一種信仰，并被用明天皇（公元585-587年）正式采納。佛教加強(qiáng)了具有不同社會地位層次的社會理念，皇帝在很大程度上處于頂端，并受到佛教法律中四大護(hù)法王的保護(hù)。貴族們也可以很方便地聲稱，他們在社會上享有特權(quán)地位是因為他們在前世積累了功德。

The adoption of Buddhism, it was hoped, would be looked on favourably by the more advanced neighbouring cultures of Korea and China and enhance Japan's reputation as a rising civilised nation in East Asia. It was for the same reason that Chinese conventions of court etiquette, formal address and titles, and the ceremonies of drinking tea and eating habits were also copied. Once officially adopted, monks, scholars, and students were regularly sent to China to learn the tenets of Buddhism in more depth and bring back that knowledge, along with art and even sometimes relics, for the benefit of the Japanese people.

? ? ? ? ? 人們希望佛教的采用會被朝鮮和中國這些更先進(jìn)的鄰國文化所看好，并提高日本作為東亞崛起的文明國家的聲譽(yù)。正是出于同樣的原因，中國的宮廷禮儀、正式稱呼和頭銜，以及飲茶儀式和飲食習(xí)慣也被逐一復(fù)制。僧侶、學(xué)者和學(xué)生定期被派往中國，更深入地學(xué)習(xí)佛教的教義，并將這些知識和藝術(shù)，有時甚至是文物帶回來，以造福日本人民。

Buddhism continued to evolve as a faith in both India and China with new sects developing which eventually made their way to Japan via monks who studied abroad. Two of the most noted scholar monks were Kukai (774-835 CE) and Saicho (767-822 CE), who founded the Shingon and Tendai sects respectively. Another important monk was Ennin (c. 793-864 CE) who studied esoteric Buddhism in China for nine years and brought back to Japan these new ideas, original texts, mandalas, and ritual objects.

? ? ? ? ? ?佛教作為一種信仰在印度和中國繼續(xù)發(fā)展，新的教派不斷發(fā)展，最終通過留學(xué)的僧侶傳到了日本。最著名的兩位學(xué)者僧侶是空海（公元774-835年）和最澄（公元767-822年），他們分別創(chuàng)立了真言宗和天臺宗。另一位重要的僧人是圓仁（約公元793-864年），他在中國學(xué)習(xí)了九年的真言陀羅尼宗（唐密），并將這些新的思想、原始文本、曼陀羅和儀式物品帶回了日本。

外交使團(tuán)

Prince Shotoku, who ruled as regent on behalf of Empress Suiko from 594 until his death in 622 CE, was a great promoter of ties with China and was a keen advocate of all things Chinese from chopsticks to Buddhism. His famous Seventeen Article Constitution of 604 CE was heavily influenced by Taoist, Confucian, and Buddhist ideas. Shotoku also sent official embassies to the Sui court in China from c. 607 CE and then throughout the 7th century CE. There would be 19 state-sponsored missions sent to China between 607 and 839 CE. The missions were led by a high-ranked court official who was accompanied by councillors, scholars, monks, artists, doctors, musicians, diviners, scribes, and interpreters. Thus each embassy could include several hundred people. The important officials had their expenses met by their hosts. 'Tribute' was given and gifts were received in return, especially paintings and books.

? ? ? ? ? 圣德太子從594年開始作為攝政王代表推古天皇執(zhí)政，直到公元622年去世，他是與中國關(guān)系的巨大推動者，熱衷于從筷子到佛教的所有中國事物。他在公元604年制定的著名的《十七條憲法》在很大程度上受到道家、儒家和佛教思想的影響。從公元607年起，圣德還向中國的隋朝朝廷派遣了官方使團(tuán)，在整個公元7世紀(jì)都是如此。在公元607年至839年期間，共有19個國家資助的使團(tuán)被派往中國。這些使團(tuán)通常由一名高級宮廷官員率領(lǐng)，隨行人員包括政府官員、學(xué)者、僧侶、藝術(shù)家、醫(yī)生、音樂家、占卜師、文學(xué)家和翻譯。因此，每個使團(tuán)多達(dá)幾百人。重要官員的費(fèi)用由他們的主人支付。到達(dá)中國后，使團(tuán)會獻(xiàn)上“貢品”，并收到禮物作為回報，特別是繪畫和書籍。

Artists copied what works they could to take home as reference works, musicians paid for lessons from famous teachers, and scholars (typically monks) studied under celebrated religious masters. Doctors acquired the arts of acupuncture, moxibustion, massage, and exorcism. Students would spend longer and not return with the main embassy. Studying for several years, their costs were, in most cases, also met by the Chinese government. Those who did take the time to study seriously in China were often rewarded with high positions on their return to Japan, becoming government advisors or heads of institutions such as Nara's university where Confucian principles were taught and the courses in Chinese literature and law were the most popular. Monks would continue to establish and head their own sects of Buddhism which became immensely popular as their new knowledge allowed them to usurp the position of existing schools and abbots.

? ? ? ? ? 藝術(shù)家們復(fù)制他們可以帶回家的作品作為參考，音樂家們花錢向名師學(xué)習(xí)，學(xué)者們（通常是僧侶）在著名的宗教大師手下學(xué)習(xí)。醫(yī)生們獲得了針灸、艾灸、按摩和驅(qū)魔的技術(shù)。學(xué)生們會花更多的時間，但不會隨主要的使館返回。學(xué)習(xí)幾年后，他們的費(fèi)用在大多數(shù)情況下也由中國政府支付。那些花時間在中國認(rèn)真學(xué)習(xí)的學(xué)生在回到日本后往往會得到很高的職位，成為政府顧問或機(jī)構(gòu)的負(fù)責(zé)人，如奈良的學(xué)院，在那里教授儒家思想，中國文學(xué)和法律課程是最受歡迎的。僧侶們建立和領(lǐng)導(dǎo)他們自己的佛教教派，這些教派在日本變得非常受歡迎，因為新知識使他們能夠篡奪現(xiàn)有學(xué)者和高僧的地位。

Throughout the Asuka Period (538-710 CE) Japanese literature and music followed Chinese models as artists brought back ideas from mainland Asia. Similarly, architectural styles came from China. The architecture of the public buildings of Nara and its successor as capital Heiankyo (Kyoto) followed Chinese models with most buildings for public administration having crimson columns supporting green tiled roofs. Heiankyo was laid out on a regular grid plan with right angled streets creating regular-sized blocks along the Chinese model of the Western Capital at Ch'ang-an, just as Nara had been. The royal palace followed Chinese ideas, and the city even had an Academy of Chinese Learning (Daigaku-ryo). In contrast, private homes, storage houses, and farm buildings continued to be built according to the Japanese architectural tradition.

? ? ? ? ? 在整個飛鳥時代（公元538-710年），日本的文學(xué)和音樂都遵循中國的模式，因為藝術(shù)家們從亞洲大陸帶回了一些想法。同樣，建筑風(fēng)格也來自中國。奈良及其后的首都平安京（京都）的公共建筑遵循中國的模式，大多數(shù)公共行政建筑都有深紅色的柱子，支撐著綠色的瓦片屋頂。平安京是按照中國的首都長安的模式，用直角的街道形成規(guī)則大小的街區(qū)來布置的，就像奈良一樣。王宮遵循中國的理念，城中甚至有一個大學(xué)寮（Daigaku-ryo）。相比之下，私人住宅、倉庫和農(nóng)場建筑則繼續(xù)按照日本的建筑傳統(tǒng)建造。

China did send embassies occasionally to Japan and missions are recorded to Kyushu, Nara, and Heiankyo. These, though, were not about the Chinese learning from Japan but rather an official seal of approval of Japan's acceptance as a 'tribute' nation. The Chinese brought valuable gifts and, even more importantly, the merchants who were able to establish lucrative and long-lasting trade relations with their Japanese counterparts. Indeed, the commerce between the two nations would far outlast the diplomatic relations.

? ? ? ? ? 中國確實偶爾會向日本派遣使團(tuán)，并且有記錄顯示，中國向九州、奈良和平安京派遣了使團(tuán)。不過，這些并不是中國人向日本學(xué)習(xí)，而是對日本作為一個“朝貢”國家的認(rèn)可，是官方認(rèn)證的一種方式。中國人帶來了寶貴的禮物，更重要的是，他們的商人能夠與日本同行建立有利可圖的長期貿(mào)易關(guān)系。事實上，兩國之間的貿(mào)易關(guān)系遠(yuǎn)遠(yuǎn)超過了外交關(guān)系。

失敗的關(guān)系

Relations with Japan's mainland neighbours were not always amicable. The Silla kingdom, a longtime rival of Baekje in the Korean peninsula finally overran its neighbour in 660 CE with the help of a massive Chinese Tang naval force. A rebel Baekje force persuaded Japan to send 800 ships under the command of Abe no Hirafu to aid their attempt to regain control of their kingdom, but the joint force was defeated at the Battle of Baekgang (Hakusonko) at the mouth of the Geum/Paekchon River in 663 CE. The success of the Unified Silla Kingdom resulted in another wave of immigrants entering Japan from the collapsed Baekje and Goguryeo kingdoms. Following their defeat, Japan could have been invaded by either Silla, the Tang, or both. A large fortification was built at Dazaifu in the south-east of Japan, but the threat of occupation never materialised.

? ? ? ? ? 日本與大陸鄰國的關(guān)系并不總是友好的。新羅王國是百濟(jì)在朝鮮半島的一個長期競爭對手，在中國唐朝一支龐大的海軍部隊的幫助下，終于在公元660年征服了它的鄰國。一支反叛的百濟(jì)部隊說服日本派出800艘船，在阿倍比羅夫的指揮下，幫助他們試圖重新控制自己的王國，但這支聯(lián)合部隊在公元663年位于金/白川河口的白江口（Hakusonko）戰(zhàn)役中被擊敗。統(tǒng)一新羅王國的成功導(dǎo)致另一波移民從崩潰的百濟(jì)和高句麗王國進(jìn)入日本。百濟(jì)戰(zhàn)敗后，日本可能被新羅、唐或兩者同時入侵。日本在東南部的太宰府建造了一個大型防御工事，但占領(lǐng)的威脅從未實現(xiàn)。

平安時代和關(guān)系的冷卻

During the Heian Period (794-1185 CE), following a final embassy to the Tang court in 838 CE, there were no longer formal diplomatic relations with China as Japan became somewhat isolationist without any necessity to defend its borders or embark on territorial conquest. Around 900 CE, the great Tang Dynasty collapsed and China became a disunity of competing states. This fact, the danger of sailing to the continent, and an increasing reaction against Chinese influence with a corresponding desire for the Japanese to exert their own political development meant that diplomatic missions petered out between the two states.

? ? ? ? ? 在平安時代（公元794-1185年），繼公元838年最后一次出使唐朝后，日本與中國不再有正式的外交關(guān)系，因為日本變得有些孤立，沒有必要保衛(wèi)其邊界或開始領(lǐng)土征服。公元900年左右，偉大的唐朝崩潰了，中國變成了一個由競爭性國家組成的不統(tǒng)一體。唐朝滅亡，意味著航行到大陸的危險，以及對中國政治格局變化越來越大的感觸和日本人對自己的政治發(fā)展的相應(yīng)愿望，意味著兩國之間的外交頻率逐漸減少。

繁榮的貿(mào)易

Although political missions declined, sporadic trade and cultural exchanges continued with China, as before. Goods imported from China were largely luxury items, but the list is diverse and included medicines, perfumes, worked silk fabrics, damask, brocades, ceramics, weapons, armour, cloves, musk, lapis lazuli, cinnabar, dyes, and musical instruments. Books came too, a catalogue dating to 891 CE lists more than 1,700 Chinese titles made available in Japan which cover history, poetry, court protocols, medicine, laws, and Confucian classics. Japan sent in return pearls, gold dust, silver, amber, agate, raw silk, camelia oil, mercury, sulphur, paper, and gilt lacquerware. Still, despite these exchanges, the lack of regular missions between the two states from the 10th century CE meant that the Heian Period overall saw a diminishing in the influence of Chinese culture, which meant that Japanese culture began to find its own unique path of development.

? ? ? ? ? ?雖然政治交流減少了，但與中國的零星貿(mào)易和文化交流仍一如既往。從中國進(jìn)口的商品主要是奢侈品，但清單上的商品多種多樣，包括藥品、香水、加工過的絲織品、錦緞、陶瓷、武器、盔甲、丁香、麝香、青金石、朱砂、染料和樂器。書籍也來了，一份可追溯到公元891年的目錄列出了1700多種中國書籍，其中包括歷史、詩歌、宮廷禮儀、醫(yī)學(xué)、法律和儒家經(jīng)典。日本送來的回報是珍珠、金粉、銀、琥珀、瑪瑙、生絲、山茶油、水銀、硫磺、紙張和鎏金漆器。盡管有這些交流，但從公元10世紀(jì)開始，兩國之間缺乏定期的訪問，這意味著平安時代總體上看到中國文化的影響在減少，也意味著日本文化開始找到它自己獨(dú)特的發(fā)展道路。

In the 13th century CE, at the very end of the ancient period, the Mongols overran China and then set their sights on Japan. When Japan refused to become a subject nation of the mighty Kublai Khan's empire, a massive invasion force was assembled. Twice, in 1274 and 1281 CE, the Mongol fleets were blown back by typhoons - what would become known as the divine winds or kamikaze, sent by the gods to protect Japan in the moment of its greatest danger. The nation had survived and was now ready to flourish in the Medieval period and pursue its own independent and unique cultural destiny.

? ? ? ? ? ?在公元13世紀(jì)，古代時期的末期，蒙古人占領(lǐng)了中國，然后把目光投向了日本。當(dāng)日本拒絕成為強(qiáng)大的忽必烈帝國的臣民時，一支大規(guī)模的蒙古入侵部隊被召集起來。在公元1274年和1281年，蒙古艦隊兩次被臺風(fēng)吹回，這就是后來被稱為“神風(fēng)”的東西，神明在日本最危險的時刻派來保護(hù)日本的安全。日本幸存了下來，它在中世紀(jì)時期蓬勃發(fā)展，追求自己獨(dú)立和獨(dú)特的文化命運(yùn)。

參考書目：

Beasley, W.G. The Japanese Experience. University of California Press, 2000.

Ebrey, P.B. Pre-Modern East Asia. Cengage Learning, 2013.

Henshall, K. Historical Dictionary of Japan to 1945. Scarecrow Press, 2013.

Mason, R.H.P. A History of Japan. Tuttle Publishing, 1997.

Sansom, G. A History of Japan to 1334. Stanford University Press, 1958.

von Verschuer, C. "Japan's Foreign Relations 600 to 1200 A.D.: A Translation from Zenrin Kokuh??ì?ki." Monumenta Nipponica, Vol. 54, No. 1 (Spring, 1999), pp. 1-39.

Wang Zhenping, A.D. "Speaking with a Forked Tongue: Diplomatic Correspondence between China and Japan, 238- 608." Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol. 114, No. 1 (Jan. - Mar., 1994), pp. 23-32.

Whitney Hall, J. The Cambridge History of Japan, Vol. 2. Cambridge University Press, 1999.

作者：Mark Cartwright

????????? 駐意大利的歷史作家。他的主要興趣包括陶瓷、建筑、世界神話和發(fā)現(xiàn)所有文明的共同思想。他擁有政治哲學(xué)碩士學(xué)位，是《世界歷史百科全書》的出版總監(jiān)。

原文網(wǎng)址：https://www.worldhistory.org/article/1085/ancient-japanese--chinese-relations/