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Sepharad（伊比利亞半島的希伯來文名稱）：安達(dá)盧斯的猶太人

? ? ? ? ? 711年征服西班牙的穆斯林在位于大馬士革的倭馬亞王朝哈里發(fā)的領(lǐng)導(dǎo)下，以埃米爾（又譯艾米爾或阿米爾，是阿拉伯國家的貴族頭銜，此封號(hào)用于中東地區(qū)和北非的阿拉伯國家）的身份進(jìn)行統(tǒng)治。758年，阿拔斯王朝推翻了大馬士革的倭馬亞王朝，阿卜杜·拉赫曼一世（756-788）在安達(dá)盧斯獨(dú)立于阿拔斯王朝，他的繼承人阿卜杜·拉赫曼三世（912-961）于929年建立科爾多瓦哈里發(fā)國。與他們的敘利亞祖先不同，西班牙的后倭馬亞王朝對(duì)異教徒采取了更為寬松的政策。協(xié)助穆斯林軍隊(duì)在伊比利亞半島建立伊斯蘭統(tǒng)治的猶太人得到了最寬松和最慷慨的齊米地位獎(jiǎng)勵(lì)。猶太人從事各種形式的職業(yè)，從農(nóng)業(yè)和葡萄種植到商業(yè)、貿(mào)易、醫(yī)藥和手工業(yè)。猶太人對(duì)其內(nèi)部事務(wù)行使完整權(quán)力，并由猶太流亡者管理，在安達(dá)盧斯被稱為ha-Nasi，即“王子”。

The Muslims who conquered Spain in 711 ruled as emirs under the authority of the Umayyad caliphate based in Damascus. When the Abbasids overthrew the Umayyads in Damascus in 758, Abd al-Rahman I (r. 756– 788) established Andalusi independence from the Abbasids, and his successor, Abd al-Rahman III (r. 912–961), declared the Umayyad caliphate in 929. Unlike their Syrian forebears, the Umayyads of Spain applied a more liberal policy to dhimmis. The Jews who aided the Muslim armies in establishing Islamic rule in the Iberian Peninsula were rewarded with one of the most lenient and generous manifestations of dhimmi status. Jews engaged in all manner of occupations, from agriculture and viticulture to commerce, trade, medicine, and the crafts. Jews exercised complete authority over their internal affairs and were governed by the Jewish exilarch, called ha-Nasi, “the prince,” in al-Andalus.

? ? ? ? ? 猶太知識(shí)分子因其對(duì)阿拉伯文、希臘文、拉丁文和羅曼語系（“Romance”源自拉丁語“Romanicus”，在中世紀(jì)用于指羅馬帝國內(nèi)普通民眾使用的一種白話拉丁語）的了解而受到高度重視，使他們成為擔(dān)任外交官員的理想人選。兩位特別著名的猶太官員是哈斯代·伊本·沙普魯特（Hasdai ibn Shaprut，915-約990年）和塞繆爾·伊本·納格里拉（Samuel ibn Nagrela，933-1056）。時(shí)至今日，Sepharad（伊比利亞半島的希伯來文名稱）代表了中世紀(jì)猶太文化的縮影。猶太宗教文化在阿拉伯文化的影響和伊斯蘭統(tǒng)治的恩惠下開花結(jié)果?？茽柖嗤弑R塞納（西班牙安達(dá)盧西亞自治區(qū)科爾多瓦省的一個(gè)市鎮(zhèn)）的猶太神學(xué)院以猶太人學(xué)習(xí)的燈塔而聞名。希伯來語曾一度被視為圣經(jīng)和塔木德的語言，但在西班牙穆斯林中卻重新煥發(fā)了活力，因?yàn)楠q太詩人看到了阿拉伯人奇妙的詩歌創(chuàng)作，并模仿他們創(chuàng)作了世俗的希伯來詩歌。同時(shí)，被徹底同化的猶太塔木德學(xué)者、哲學(xué)家和知識(shí)分子，如邁蒙尼德，也用流利而雄辯的阿拉伯語表達(dá)自己的觀點(diǎn)。

Jewish intellectuals were highly valued for their knowledge of Arabic, Greek, Latin, and vernacular Romance languages, making them ideal to serve as foreign ministers and diplomats. Two particularly renowned Jewish ministers were Hasdai ibn Shaprut (915–c. 990) and Samuel ibn Nagrela (933–1056). To this day Sepharad, the name for Jewish Spain, represents the epitome of medieval Jewish culture. Jewish religious culture blossomed under the influence of Arab culture and the largesse of Islamic rule. The Jewish yeshiva at Lucena in Córdoba achieved renown as a beacon of Jewish learning. Hebrew, once relegated to the language of Scripture and Talmud, was reinvigorated in Muslim Spain as Jewish poets, seeing the wondrous poetic output of the Arabs, copied them and composed secular Hebrew poetry. At the same time thoroughly assimilated Jewish Talmudic scholars, philosophers, and intellectuals, such as Maimonides, expressed themselves in fluent and eloquent Arabic.

西班牙倭馬亞王朝的猶太外交官

? ? ? ? ? 哈斯代·伊本·沙普魯特曾擔(dān)任阿卜杜·拉赫曼三世的外交官和宮廷醫(yī)生。雖然他沒有正式的宰相頭銜，但哈斯代·伊本·沙普魯特就主要條約進(jìn)行談判，接待來自拜占庭帝國和神圣羅馬帝國皇帝奧托一世的基督教使節(jié)，并在交戰(zhàn)的基督教王國之間進(jìn)行和平談判。哈斯代是一位出色的學(xué)者，他監(jiān)督了拜占庭皇帝君士坦丁七世于949年作為禮物送給阿卜杜·拉赫曼的華麗希臘手稿(佩達(dá)努思·迪奧斯科里德斯植物學(xué)著作)的翻譯工作。

Hasdai ibn Shaprut served as diplomat and court physician to Abd al-Rahman III. Though he did not have the official title of vizier, Hasdai ibn Shaprut negotiated major treaties, welcomed Christian envoys from the Byzantine Empire and the German king Otto I, and negotiated peace among warring Christian kingdoms. An accomplished scholar, Hasdai oversaw the translation of a magnificent Greek manuscript of Dioscorides’ work on botany that the Byzantine emperor Constantine VII had sent as a gift to Abd al-Rahman in 949.

? ? ? ? ? 在猶太歷史方面，哈斯代·伊本·沙普魯特將西班牙猶太人從東方猶太人的知識(shí)和禮儀控制中解放出來。巴格達(dá)被認(rèn)為是猶太文化的中心，各地的拉比都向巴格達(dá)的學(xué)院提出請(qǐng)求，要求得到關(guān)于法律、禮儀、道德和倫理的意見。哈斯代使科爾多瓦成為猶太人的學(xué)術(shù)中心。拉比摩西·本·哈諾克（Moses ben Hanoch）（965年去世）被任命為盧塞納塔木德學(xué)校的校長，單獨(dú)提供希伯來文禮儀問題的答案。在哈斯代的慷慨解囊下，猶太教在科爾多瓦蓬勃發(fā)展，他支付了將書籍翻譯成希伯來語和阿拉伯語的費(fèi)用，為圖書館購買書籍，并資助猶太學(xué)校和學(xué)習(xí)機(jī)構(gòu)。阿卜杜·拉赫曼三世全心全意地支持安達(dá)盧斯的猶太人從巴比倫獨(dú)立出來，這與他對(duì)巴格達(dá)的阿拔斯王朝對(duì)手的哈里發(fā)要求是一致的。

With respect to Jewish history, Hasdai ibn Shaprut liberated Spanish Jewry from the intellectual and liturgical control of Jews in the East. Baghdad was thought the center of Jewish culture, and rabbis everywhere sent requests to the Baghdad academies for responsa, opinions on law, liturgy, morality, and ethics. Hasdai made Córdoba a sentinel Jewish center. He appointed Rabbi Moses ben Chanoch (d. 965) the gaon of the Talmudic school at Lucena that independently provided answers to questions of Hebrew liturgy. Judaism thrived in Córdoba under Hasdai’s generosity, as he paid for translations of books into Hebrew and Arabic, purchased books for libraries, and subsidized yeshiva schools and houses of study. Abd alRahman III wholeheartedly supported the independence of the Andalusian Jews from Babylonia, in keeping with his caliphal claims over and against his Abbasid rivals in Baghdad.

? ? ? ? ? 穆斯林西班牙最有名的猶太王子是強(qiáng)大的塞繆爾·伊本·納格里拉 (Samuel ibn Naghrillah)?，又稱塞繆爾·哈·納吉德，或哈-納西（王子）（993-1056）。他于993年出生于科爾多瓦，在其漫長且動(dòng)蕩的一生中，他見證了1031年倭馬亞王朝哈里發(fā)的倒臺(tái)，他本人也是宮廷政治陰謀的受害者。納格里拉是連續(xù)兩任倭馬亞王朝哈里發(fā)的外交大臣，共達(dá)29年。從1027年到1037年，他擔(dān)任自治的齊里王朝國王哈布斯·本·馬克森·穆扎法爾的大臣，后者從1019年到1037年統(tǒng)治格拉納達(dá)。他也是一位戰(zhàn)術(shù)家、戰(zhàn)時(shí)行動(dòng)指揮、戰(zhàn)略家和國家戰(zhàn)爭的斗士。在1038年至1056年期間，除了兩年之外，塞繆爾·伊本·納格里拉每年都作為首席指揮官帶領(lǐng)國王的軍隊(duì)在戰(zhàn)場上作戰(zhàn)。

The most famous Jewish prince in Muslim Spain was the powerful Samuel ibn Nagrela, also known as Samuel Ha Nagid, or Ha-Nasi, the Prince (993–1056). Born at Córdoba in 993, during his long and tumultuous life he witnessed the fall of the Umayyad caliphate in 1031 and was himself a victim of the political intrigues of the court. Samuel ibn Nagrela was the foreign minister or vizier to two successive Umayyad caliphs, for a total of 29 years. From 1027 until 1037 he served as vizier to the autonomous Zirid king Habbus al-Muzaffar, who ruled Granada from 1019 to 1037. He was also a battlefield tactician, wartime operations director, strategist, and fighter of his nation’s wars. Every year but two between 1038 and 1056, Samuel ha Nagid led the king’s army as its chief commander in the field.

盧塞納的學(xué)術(shù)名人

? ? ? ? ? 盧塞納是科爾多瓦省南部的一個(gè)城鎮(zhèn)，至少從九世紀(jì)起就一直是一個(gè)著名的猶太教學(xué)校的所在地，這也是保存下來的最早的法律答辯書的日期。12世紀(jì)科爾多瓦歷史學(xué)家和哲學(xué)家亞伯拉罕·伊本·達(dá)烏德（Abraham ibn Daud）撰寫的《卡巴拉之書》（Sefer ba-Cabala）中記錄了一個(gè)猶太傳說，其中提到了盧塞納的學(xué)院。這個(gè)傳說講述了四個(gè)巴比倫拉比的船在意大利南部的巴里海岸被穆斯林海盜捕獲。拉比們被四個(gè)不同國家的猶太社區(qū)贖回，其中一個(gè)是安達(dá)盧斯。西班牙的拉比就是前面提到的摩西·本·哈諾克，他和他的兒子哈諾克一起被哈斯代·伊本·沙普魯特贖回了。如前所述，摩西·本·哈諾克被任命為盧塞納猶太學(xué)校的校長，他的兒子在他死后繼任。在摩西·本·哈諾克的任期內(nèi)，盧塞納神學(xué)院獨(dú)立于巴比倫神學(xué)院。在九世紀(jì)，伊比利亞的猶太人將他們的法律問題寄給巴比倫的教士，而一個(gè)世紀(jì)后，他們的問題被寄給了安達(dá)盧斯的拉比。哈諾克為來自散居各地的猶太人的詢問寫了答復(fù)，這一事實(shí)表明，盧塞納的拉比學(xué)者地位即使沒有超過巴比倫的教士，也已經(jīng)等同于他們。

Lucena, a town in the southern province of Córdoba, had been the site of a Jewish yeshiva of renown at least since the ninth century, the earliest date for which juridical responsa are preserved. The academy at Lucena is mentioned in a Jewish legend recorded in the Sefer ba-Cabala (The book of Kabbalah), written by the 12th-century Córdoban historian and philosopher Abraham ibn Daud. The legend tells of four Babylonian rabbis whose boat was captured by Muslim pirates off the coast of Bari in southern Italy. The rabbis were redeemed by Jewish communities in four different countries, one of which was al-Andalus. The Spanish rabbi was the aforementioned Moses ben Chanoch, who, together with his son, Chanoch, were redeemed by Hasdai ibn Shaprut. As noted, Moses ben Chanoch was appointed as gaon to the yeshiva at Lucena, and his son would succeed him upon his death. During the mandate of Chanoch ben Moses, the Lucena yeshiva achieved full independence from the Babylonian geonim. Whereas in the ninth century Iberian Jews were sending their legal queries to the geonim of Babylonia, a century later queries were being sent to the Andalusi rabbis. The fact that Chanoch wrote responsa to queries from all over the Jewish Diaspora indicates that the rabbinic scholars of Lucena had equaled if not surpassed the geonim of Babylonia.

? ? ? ? ? 盧塞納的名聲一直延續(xù)到12世紀(jì)，在1086年至1145年阿爾摩拉維德（穆拉比特）柏柏爾人在伊比利亞半島的統(tǒng)治中幸存下來。這些信奉禁欲主義的穆斯林改革者憎恨西班牙穆斯林統(tǒng)治者的自由主義，并將1085年托萊多被基督徒奪走的原因歸咎于這種自由主義以及他們對(duì)異教徒的優(yōu)待。因此，他們進(jìn)行了一系列改革，包括限制穆斯林的公民自由，強(qiáng)行改變信仰，并發(fā)動(dòng)大屠殺。盧塞納社區(qū)通過向阿爾摩拉維德官員行賄，設(shè)法逃避了改變信仰的壓力。在其統(tǒng)治末期，阿爾摩拉維德放松了對(duì)猶太人的大部分鎮(zhèn)壓措施，甚至保留了猶太人的政府職位。當(dāng)迫害的歷史在阿爾摩拉維德統(tǒng)治時(shí)期（1145-1269）重演時(shí)，大多數(shù)猶太家庭都逃到了伊斯蘭世界的其他地區(qū)或北上到西班牙基督教區(qū)，結(jié)束了Sepharad的“黃金時(shí)代”。盡管有這些挫折，盧塞納學(xué)院仍然培養(yǎng)出了諸如艾薩克·本·雅各布布·阿爾法西（1103年）及其弟子詩人、學(xué)者和醫(yī)生猶大·哈列維（1144年）和約瑟夫·伊本·米加什（11世紀(jì)末）等偉大的塔木德學(xué)者，后者曾教授邁蒙尼德的父親邁蒙。約瑟夫·伊本·米加什對(duì)《米書拿》的不朽評(píng)論影響了西班牙和法國對(duì)《塔木德》的研究。

Lucena’s fame would continue well into the 12th century, surviving the reign of the Almoravid Berbers in the Iberian Peninsula from 1086 to 1145. These ascetic Muslim reformists abhorred the liberality of the Muslim rulers of Spain and blamed this liberalism as well as their favorable treatment of the dhimmis for the loss of Toledo to the Christians in 1085. Accordingly, they instituted a number of reforms, which included restricting the civil liberties of the dhimmis, imposing enforced conversions, and perpetrating massacres. The community of Lucera managed to escape the pressure to convert through the payment of bribes to Almoravid officials. Toward the end of their rule, the Almoravids relaxed most of the repressive measures affecting the Jews and even retained Jews in government posts. When the history of persecution repeated itself under the reign of the Almohads (1145–1269), most Jewish families fled to other regions of the Islamic world or north to Christian Spain, effectively bringing an end to the “golden age” of Sepharad. Despite these setbacks the Lucena academy continued to produce such towering Talmudists as Isaac ben Jacob Alfasi (d. 1103) and his disciples the poet, scholar, and physician Judah HaLevi (d. 1144) and Joseph ibn Miqdash (late 11th century), the latter of whom taught Maimonides’ father, Maimon. Ibn Miqdash’s monumental commentaries on the Mishnah influenced the study of the Talmud in Spain and France.

? ? ? ? ? 安達(dá)盧斯的伊斯蘭化猶太人，如猶大·哈列維，逃到了西班牙基督教區(qū)，這代表了塞法迪猶太人和阿什肯納茲猶太人關(guān)系史上的一個(gè)關(guān)鍵時(shí)刻（歷史上，歐洲猶太人被分為兩大群體：阿什肯納茲猶太人，或“Germanics”（德系猶太人，在中世紀(jì)希伯來語中意為“德國”），表示他們的中歐基地；以及塞法迪人，或“西班牙裔”（ Sefarad?，希伯來語中的“西班牙”或“伊比利亞”），表示他們的西班牙、葡萄牙或北非基地）。由于以格拉納達(dá)的猶大·本·索爾·伊本·提本（1120-1190）為首的一個(gè)杰出的翻譯家家族將其翻譯成希伯來語，塞法迪學(xué)術(shù)和一些阿拉伯科學(xué)文獻(xiàn)得以傳給阿什肯納茲的猶太人。猶大的兒子塞繆爾在與邁蒙尼德直接協(xié)商后，將其《困惑者指南》從阿拉伯語原文翻譯成希伯來文。

The flight of Andalusian Islamicized Jews, such as Judah HaLevi, into Christian Spain represents a key moment in the history of Sephardic-Ashkenazic relations. Sephardic scholarship and some Arabic scientific texts were transmitted to the Ashkenazic Jews thanks to the translations into Hebrew undertaken by a remarkable family of translators headed by Judah ibn Tibbon of Granada (1120–c. 1190). Judah’s son, Samuel, translated Maimonides’ Guide for the Perplexed from the original Arabic into Hebrew in direct consultation with the author.

邁蒙尼德之爭（所謂“哲學(xué)家”和所謂“傳統(tǒng)主義者”之間持續(xù)不斷的一系列爭論）

? ? ? ? ? 科爾多瓦出生的拉比和哲學(xué)家摩西·邁蒙尼德（1135-1204）的著作在西班牙、法國和德國的猶太社區(qū)中引發(fā)了一系列爭議。當(dāng)邁蒙尼德只有13歲的時(shí)候，他的家人逃離了西班牙南部的阿爾摩哈德王朝（穆瓦希德王朝），在埃及的福斯塔特定居。正是在那里，他寫下了他最有爭議的兩部作品，即《困惑者指南》和《米書拿妥拉》（《第二妥拉》）。其著作的光輝在整個(gè)猶太世界引起了轟動(dòng)。他們吸引了安達(dá)盧斯、地中海和中東地區(qū)被穆斯林同化的希臘裔猶太人的欽佩，并在阿什肯納茲的猶太人中展開了爭論。阿什肯納茲的猶太人尤其反對(duì)邁蒙尼德試圖綜合《圣經(jīng)》和亞里士多德哲學(xué)的教義，反對(duì)他使用希臘方法來系統(tǒng)化哈拉卡（Halakhah，自圣經(jīng)時(shí)代以來發(fā)展起來的法律和法令的總和，用于規(guī)范宗教儀式和宗教活動(dòng)，字面翻譯是“一個(gè)人行走的道路”），而不是傳統(tǒng)的拉比方法。西班牙基督教區(qū)和法國南部的理性主義同化猶太人支持邁蒙尼德的立場。但是，德國的阿什肯納茲猶太人，在十字軍大屠殺的打擊下，已經(jīng)退出了禁欲主義、孤僻和神秘的哈西德派，不能接受邁蒙尼德的理性主義。由于邁蒙尼德的爭論，阿什肯納茲的拉比們?cè)噲D對(duì)所有世俗研究，包括哲學(xué)、形而上學(xué)和數(shù)學(xué)施加禁令。

The writings of the Córdoban-born rabbi and philosopher Moses Maimonides (1135–1204) sparked a series of controversies among the Jewish communities of Spain, France, and Germany. When Maimonides was only 13 years old, his family fled the Almohads in southern Spain and settled in Fustat, Egypt. It was there that he wrote his two most controversial works, the Guide for the Perplexed and the Mishneh Torah (Second Torah). The brilliance and clarity of his writings caused a stir throughout the Jewish world. They drew admiration from the Muslim-assimilated Greek-oriented Jews of al-Andalus, the Mediterranean, and the Middle East and unleashed polemics among the Jews of Ashkenaz. Ashkenazic Jews especially objected to Maimonides’ attempts to synthesize the teachings of the Torah and Aristotelian philosophy and his use of Greek methods to systematize Halachic law instead of traditional rabbinic methods. Rationalist assimilated Jews of Christian Spain and southern France supported the Maimonidean position. But German Ashkenazic Jews, reeling from the crusader massacres, had withdrawn into an ascetic, insular, and mystical Hasidim that could not admit Maimonidean rationalism. As a result of the Maimonidean controversy, Ashkenazic rabbis tried to impose a ban on all secular studies, including philosophy, metaphysics, and mathematics.

中世紀(jì)的主要猶太人士

Saadya Gaon (882–942) 薩阿迪亞·果昂

? ? ? ? ? ?著名拉比、哲學(xué)家和巴比倫教士；直言不諱地反對(duì)卡拉派。他破滅了恢復(fù)基于月球觀測的舊禮儀日歷的企圖，該日歷已被拉比希勒爾二世在第四世紀(jì)拋棄了。他是一位多產(chǎn)的作家，寫了許多關(guān)于希伯來語的作品；法律；哲學(xué)論文《信仰與見解之書》（Emunoth ve deoth）；以及幾十篇反對(duì)卡拉派的論述。

Famous rabbi, philosopher, and prominent Babylonian gaon; outspoken opponent of the Karaites. He repulsed attempts to return to the old liturgical calendar based upon the sightings of the Moon, which had been discarded by Rabbi Hillel II in the fourth century. A prolific writer, he wrote numerous works on Hebrew philology; law; a philosophical treatise, Beliefs and Opinions (Emunoth ve deoth); and scores of tractates against the Karaites.

Hasdai ibn Shaprut (915–970) 哈斯代·伊本·沙普魯特

? ? ? ? ? 猶太語言學(xué)家、語法學(xué)家、醫(yī)生和倭馬亞王朝哈里發(fā)阿卜杜·拉赫曼三世（912-961年）的外交大臣。哈斯代·伊本·沙普魯特的外交勝利之一是在萊昂和納瓦拉這兩個(gè)暴力國家之間促成其和平。他參與了將迪奧斯科里德斯的植物學(xué)著作的希臘文手稿翻譯成阿拉伯文的工作，使阿拉伯人能夠接觸到該著作，并在此后向世界其他國家傳播。他通過贊助盧塞納的神學(xué)院，幫助塞法迪猶太教擺脫了對(duì)巴比倫神學(xué)院的依賴。

Jewish linguist, grammarian, physician, and minister of foreign affairs to the Umayyad caliph Abd alRahman III (r. 912–961). One of Hasdai ibn Shaprut’s diplomatic triumphs was to arrange peace between the violent states of León and Navarre. He participated in the translation of the Greek manuscript of Dioscorides’ work on botany into Arabic, making it accessible to Arabs and thereafter to the rest of the world. He helped to make Sephardic Judaism independent of its reliance upon the Babylonian geonim through his patronage of the yeshiva at Lucena.

Chanoch ben Moses (active 965) 摩西·本·哈諾克（又譯摩西·本·查諾克）

? ? ? ? ? 摩西·本·哈諾克繼承了他的父親Mosen ben Chanoch（卒于965年），成為科爾多瓦的首席拉比和整個(gè)穆斯林西班牙的猶太社區(qū)的精神領(lǐng)袖。傳說中，他和他的父親曾被海盜俘虜，被哈斯代·伊本·沙普魯特贖回。在摩西·本·哈諾克的領(lǐng)導(dǎo)下，盧塞納的神學(xué)院開始獨(dú)立于巴比倫的拉比。世界各地的猶太人寫信給哈諾克尋求答案，這使盧塞納成為猶太法律研究的燈塔。

Chanoch ben Moses succeeded his father, Mosen ben Chanoch (d. 965), as the chief rabbi of Córdoba and the spiritual head of the Jewish community of all Muslim Spain. Legend has it that he and his father were shipwrecked by pirates and redeemed by Hasdai ibn Shaprut. Under the leadership of Chanoch ben Moses the yeshiva of Lucena became independent of the rabbis of Babylonia. Jews from all over the world wrote to Chanoch seeking responsa, which converted Lucena into a beacon of Jewish legal studies.

Samuel ha Nagid (993–1056) 塞繆爾·納吉德

? ? ? ? ? 西班牙倭馬亞王朝的猶太人中著名的猶太王子（(“Ha-Nasi”）。他曾擔(dān)任最后兩位倭馬亞王朝哈里發(fā)的大臣，1031年科爾多瓦哈里發(fā)倒臺(tái)后，他遷往格拉納達(dá)，擔(dān)任柏柏爾泰法國王的大臣。塞繆爾也是一位學(xué)者、語法學(xué)家、軍事指揮官和有成就的詩人。在他的詩集《Ben Mishle》中，反映了世俗話題，如王權(quán)和戰(zhàn)爭的愚蠢，以及表達(dá)對(duì)家庭的虔誠和愛。

Renowned Jewish prince (“Ha-Nasi”) of the Jews of Umayyad Spain. He served as vizier to the last two Umayyad caliphs, and after the fall of the Córdoban caliphate in 1031, he relocated to Granada to take up the position as vizier to the Taifa Berber king. Samuel was also a scholar, grammarian, military commander, and accomplished poet. In his poetry collection, Ben Mishle, he reflects on worldly topics such as the follies of kingship and war as well as expressing piety and love of family.

Maimonides (1135–1204) 摩西·本·邁蒙（邁蒙尼德）

? ? ? ? ? 科爾多瓦的摩西·本·邁蒙，被稱為邁蒙尼德，是中世紀(jì)猶太歷史上最著名的拉比和哲學(xué)家。他出生于科爾多瓦，其家人在穆瓦希德王朝的迫害下移民到埃及。他移民到埃及象征著西班牙猶太人“黃金時(shí)代”的消亡。邁蒙尼德學(xué)習(xí)亞里士多德哲學(xué)，并撰寫了宏大的《米書拿妥拉》（Mishneh Torah）（第二部妥拉），其中使用希臘的分類系統(tǒng)綜合了妥拉的教義。他的《困惑者指南》是希臘理性思想和猶太教的高度綜合，引發(fā)了邁蒙尼德之爭，這有可能破壞了塞法迪和阿什肯納茲猶太人之間的關(guān)系。

Moses ben Maimon of Córdoba, known as Maimonides, was the most famous rabbi and philosopher in the history of medieval Jewry. He was born in Córdoba, and his family emigrated to Egypt in the wake of the Almohad persecutions. His immigration to Egypt symbolizes the demise of the “golden age” of Jewish Spain. Maimonides studied Aristotelian philosophy and wrote the mammoth Mishneh Torah (Second Torah), which synthesized the teachings of the Torah using Greek systems of classification. His Guide for the Perplexed, a towering synthesis of Greek rational thought and Judaism, sparked the Maimonides Controversy, which threatened to sever relations between Sephardic and Ashkenazic Jews.

Meir ben Baruch of Rothenberg (1215–c. 1286) 羅騰堡的梅爾·本·巴魯赫

? ? ? ? ? 德國13世紀(jì)最偉大的拉比，來自杰出的阿什肯納茲拉比的家族。他出席了1240年關(guān)于《塔木德》的巴黎爭論，這次爭論導(dǎo)致許多《塔木德》手稿被燒毀。他為紀(jì)念這一事件而創(chuàng)作的詩歌悼詞成為猶太教禮儀的一部分。他作為阿什肯納茲最重要的拉比獲得了贊譽(yù)，其答辯和教義在后世留下了不可磨滅的痕跡。他在1286年英勇地拒絕接受神圣羅馬帝國皇帝對(duì)猶太人實(shí)行農(nóng)奴制的做法，導(dǎo)致他被監(jiān)禁和死亡。

Germany’s greatest rabbi of the 13th century. He hailed from a long line of prominent Ashkenazic rabbis. He was present at the Paris Disputations on the Talmud of 1240, which resulted in the burning of numerous manuscripts of the Talmud. The poetic eulogy he composed to commemorate this event became a part of Jewish liturgy. He achieved acclaim as the foremost rabbi of Ashkenaz, and his responsa and teachings made an indelible mark on future generations. His heroic refusal to accept the Holy Roman Emperor’s imposition of serfdom on the Jews, issued in 1286, led to his imprisonment and death.

《Handbook To Life in The Medieval World》（2008）

By Madeleine Pelner Cosman and Linda Gale Jones?

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