From a humble beginning as a sweet treat grown in gardens, sugar cane cultivation became an economic powerhouse, and the growing demand for sugar stimulated the colonization of the New World by European powers, brought slavery to the forefront, and fostered brutal revolutions and wars.

? ? ? ? ? 甘蔗一開始只是種植在花園里的一種甜食，后來糖成為一種經(jīng)濟動力，人們對糖的需求不斷增加，刺激了歐洲列強對新大陸的殖民，使奴隸制成為殖民地主流，并因此產(chǎn)生了許多殘酷的革命與戰(zhàn)爭。

The geographic center of sugar cane cultivation shifted gradually across the world over a span of 3,000 years from India to Persia, along the Mediterranean to the islands near the coast of Africa and then the Americas, before shifting back across the globe to Indonesia. A whole new kind of agriculture was invented to produce sugar – the so-called Plantation System. In it, colonists planted large acreages of single crops which could be shipped long distances and sold at a profit in Europe. To maximize the productivity and profitability of these plantations, slaves or indentured servants were imported to maintain and harvest the labor-intensive crops. Sugar cane was the first to be grown in this system, but many others followed including coffee, cotton, cocoa, tobacco, tea, rubber, and most recently oil palm.

? ? ? ? ? 在3000年的時間里，甘蔗種植的地理中心逐漸在世界各地轉(zhuǎn)移，從印度到波斯，沿著地中海到非洲海岸附近的島嶼，然后是美洲，最后又轉(zhuǎn)移到了印度尼西亞。為了生產(chǎn)糖，人們創(chuàng)造出一種全新的農(nóng)業(yè)模式——所謂的種植園制度。在這個系統(tǒng)中，殖民者種植了大面積的單一作物，這些作物可以長途運輸并在歐洲銷售，以獲得利潤。為了最大限度地提高這些種植園的生產(chǎn)力和盈利能力，奴隸或契約仆人被帶到種植園，來維護和收獲作物，這是一種勞動密集型的農(nóng)業(yè)模式。甘蔗是第一個在這種系統(tǒng)中種植的作物，其他作物也隨之而來，包括咖啡、棉花、可可、煙草、茶葉、橡膠，以及油棕櫚。

甘蔗種植的開端

There is no archeological record of when and where humans first began growing sugar cane as a crop, but it most likely occurred about 10,000 years ago in what is now New Guinea. The species domesticated was Saccharum robustum found in dense stands along rivers. The people in New Guinea were among the most inventive agriculturalists the world has known. They domesticated a broad range of local plant species including not only sugar cane but also taro, bananas, yam, and breadfruit.

? ? ? ? ? 關(guān)于人類何時何地開始種植甘蔗，沒有任何考古記錄，但很可能是在大約1萬年前出現(xiàn)在新幾內(nèi)亞（當今的）。馴化的物種是新畿內(nèi)亞野生蔗，人們在河流沿岸發(fā)現(xiàn)了這種茂密的植物叢。新幾內(nèi)亞人是世界上已知的最具創(chuàng)造性的農(nóng)學(xué)家之一。他們在當?shù)伛Z化了廣泛的植物物種，不僅有甘蔗，還包括芋頭、香蕉、山藥和面包樹。

The cultivation of sugar cane moved steadily eastward across the Pacific, spreading to the adjacent Solomon Islands, the New Hebrides, New Caledonia, and ultimately to Polynesia. Cultivation of sugar cane also moved westward into continental Asia, Indonesia, the Philippines, and then Northern India. During this advancement, S. officinarum ("nobel canes") hybridized with a local wild species called S. spontaneum to produce a hybrid, S. sinense ("thin canes"). These hybrids were less sweet and not as robust as pure S. officinarum but were hardier and could be grown much more successfully in subtropical mainlands.

? ? ? ? ? 甘蔗種植在太平洋地區(qū)穩(wěn)步東移，擴散到鄰近的所羅門群島、新赫布里底群島、新喀里多尼亞，并最終擴展到波利尼西亞。甘蔗的種植也向西進入亞洲大陸、印度尼西亞、菲律賓，然后是印度北部。在這一進展過程中，秀貴甘蔗（"貴族甘蔗"，又名紅甘蔗）與當?shù)氐囊吧锓N甜根子草（禾本科甘蔗屬下的一個種）雜交，產(chǎn)生了一個雜交種S. sinense（"瘦甘蔗"）。這些雜交種的甜度較低，不如純種的秀貴甘蔗粗壯，但更耐寒，可以較好地在亞熱帶地區(qū)種植。

Sugar cane was for eons just chewed as a sweet treat, and it was not until about 3,000 years ago that people in India first began squeezing the canes and producing sugar (Gopal, 1964). For a long time, the Indian people kept the whole process of sugar-making a closely guarded secret, resulting in rich profits through trade across the subcontinent. This all changed when Darius I (r. 522-486 BCE), ruler of the Persian Achaemenid Empire, invaded India in 510 BCE. The victors took the technology back to Persia and began producing their own sugar. By the 11th century CE, sugar constituted a significant portion of the trade between the East and Europe. Sugar manufacturing continued in Persia for nearly a thousand years, under a revolving set of rulers, until the Mongol invasions of the 13th century destroyed the industry.

? ? ? ? ? 古往今來，甘蔗只是作為一種甜食存在，直到大約3000年前，印度人才第一次開始壓榨甘蔗生產(chǎn)糖（Gopal，1964）。在很長一段時間里，印度人將制糖的整個過程保密，通過在整個次大陸的貿(mào)易中獲取豐富的利潤。這種局面在公元前510年波斯阿契美尼德帝國的統(tǒng)治者大流士一世（公元前522-486）入侵印度時發(fā)生了變化。波斯人將技術(shù)帶回了波斯，并開始生產(chǎn)糖。到了公元11世紀，糖構(gòu)成了東方和歐洲之間貿(mào)易的重要部分。糖的生產(chǎn)在波斯持續(xù)了近一千年，統(tǒng)治者不斷更迭；直到13世紀蒙古人的入侵摧毀了這個行業(yè)。

穆斯林的遺產(chǎn)：地中海糖業(yè)

When the Prophet Muhammad began his Holy War to convert the world to Islam in 632 CE, his followers simultaneously started an agricultural revolution. It began in their early Persian invasions when they discovered not only sugar cane but also a long list of crops largely unknown to the rest of the world including artichokes, bananas, coconut palms, cotton, eggplants, lemons, limes, mangos, rice, spinach, sorghum, sour oranges, watermelons, wheat, and yam. In what has been called the Arab Agricultural Revolution, as Muslim armies conquered new regions, they introduced this assemblage of crops and in so doing dramatically altered the agriculture of the whole Mediterranean region.

? ? ? ? ? ?當先知穆罕默德在公元632年開始他的圣戰(zhàn)，使世界皈依伊斯蘭教時，他的追隨者也展開了一場農(nóng)業(yè)革命。這場革命始于早期波斯入侵，當時他們不僅發(fā)現(xiàn)了甘蔗，還發(fā)現(xiàn)了一系列當時知者甚少的作物，包括朝鮮薊、香蕉、椰子樹、棉花、茄子、檸檬、酸橙、芒果、水稻、菠菜、高粱、酸橙、西瓜、小麥和山藥。在被稱為阿拉伯農(nóng)業(yè)革命的過程中，隨著穆斯林軍隊征服新的地區(qū)，他們引進了這些作物，從而極大地改變了整個地中海地區(qū)的農(nóng)業(yè)。

Sugar cane or "the Persian Reed" was introduced by the Muslims into Egypt in 710, where it became the most sought out source of sugar in the world, reaching its peak production from about 1000 to 1350. From Egypt, sugar cane was spread westward by the Arabs across Northern Africa reaching Morocco and Spain in the middle of the 7th century. Significant sugar production began in Morocco in the late 800s, reaching its peak from 1000 to 1200. Iberian Peninsula production of sugar began about 900, with its boom starting in 1300 and lasting until 1500. These areas remained under Muslim control throughout this period.

? ? ? ? ? 甘蔗或"波斯蘆葦"于710年被穆斯林帶到埃及，在那里它成為最受歡迎的糖源，在大約1000年至1350年達到其產(chǎn)量的頂峰。從埃及出發(fā)，甘蔗被阿拉伯人帶往西方，它穿過北非，在7世紀中期到達摩洛哥和西班牙。摩洛哥在800年代末開始大量生產(chǎn)糖，從1000年到1200年達到高峰。伊比利亞半島的糖生產(chǎn)大約從900年開始，其繁榮期從1300年開始，持續(xù)到1500年。在這一時期，這些地區(qū)一直處于穆斯林的控制之下。

The Arabs also introduced sugar to Cyprus, Crete, and Sicily by the early 800s, but significant sugar production did not begin on these islands until well after the Arabs had lost control of most of them. Peak production in Cyprus was from 1300 to 1500, when the island was dominated by the Genoese merchants. The boom years in Crete were from 1400 to 1500 under Venetian rule. In Sicily, the golden years of production were from 800 to 1050 when the island was still under Muslim control and then again from 1380 to 1520 when it was essentially under Spanish rule.

? ? ? ? ? 阿拉伯人也在800年代初將甘蔗引入了塞浦路斯、克里特島和西西里島，直到阿拉伯人失去對大部分島嶼的控制后，這些島嶼才開始大量生產(chǎn)糖。塞浦路斯的生產(chǎn)高峰是在1300年至1500年，該島的熱那亞商人控制了這一行業(yè)。克里特島的繁榮期是在威尼斯人統(tǒng)治下的1400年至1500年。在西西里島，生產(chǎn)的黃金時期是800年至1050年，當時該島仍在穆斯林的控制之下；1380年至1520年也是巔峰期，當時它基本上是在西班牙的統(tǒng)治之下。

葡萄牙人和西班牙人擴大糖業(yè)生產(chǎn)

The Portuguese ultimately took control of worldwide sugar production in the 15th century as an economic by-product of their exploration and colonization of the Atlantic Islands along the African coast. The first plantations were set up after the Portuguese colonization of Madeira when Prince Henry decided that sugar production held the key to success for his Atlantic acquisitions, and he sent to Sicily for cane plants and experienced sugar technicians. Armed with this knowledge the first sugar plantations were established by clearcutting land to establish large farms and building factories to process the sugar. The first sugar was refined in Madeira in 1432, and by 1460 the island was the world’s largest sugar producer. Sugar was the main product of the island until the mid-16th century when it was gradually replaced by wine.

? ? ? ? ? 最終，葡萄牙人在15世紀控制了全世界的糖業(yè)生產(chǎn)，這是他們在非洲海岸探索和殖民大西洋群島的一個經(jīng)濟副產(chǎn)品。第一批種植園是在葡萄牙殖民馬德拉后建立的，當時亨利王子決定發(fā)展糖業(yè)是他在大西洋殖民的成功關(guān)鍵，他派人到西西里島尋找甘蔗植物和有經(jīng)驗的糖業(yè)技術(shù)人員。有了這些知識，葡萄牙人在殖民地開拓土地來建立大型農(nóng)場，并建立工廠來加工甘蔗。1432年，葡萄牙人在馬德拉的種植園提煉出第一批糖；到1460年，該島成為世界上最大的糖生產(chǎn)地。糖是該島的主要產(chǎn)品，直到16世紀中期才逐漸被葡萄酒取代。

In the 15th century, the Portuguese also discovered and developed the unpopulated Azores, Cape Verde Islands, and S?o Tomé, while the Spaniards conquered the already inhabited Canary Islands. Sugar never became important in the Azores and Cape Verde Islands, but the Spanish Canaries and Portuguese S?o Tomé became major sugar producers by the late 1400s. From the very beginning of Atlantic sugar production, slave labor was the main source of manpower. The Spanish started out by forcing the native peoples the Guanches to work in the cane fields. When there were too few Guanches left alive from disease and overwork to take care of their fields, they imported African slaves.

? ? ? ? ? 15世紀，葡萄牙人發(fā)現(xiàn)并開發(fā)了無人居住的亞速爾群島、佛得角群島和圣多美，而西班牙人則征服了已經(jīng)有人居住的加納利群島。糖業(yè)在亞速爾群島和佛得角群島發(fā)展較少，但西班牙人的加那利群島和葡萄牙圣多美則在14世紀末成為主要的糖生產(chǎn)地。從大西洋糖業(yè)生產(chǎn)的開始，奴隸就是人力的主要來源。西班牙人一開始就強迫本地的關(guān)切人（古安切人）在甘蔗地里工作。當因疾病和過度勞累而活著的關(guān)切人越來越少，無法照顧種植園時，西班牙人將非洲奴隸帶到種植園。

巴? ? ?西

In the 16th century, the center of sugar production began to shift to the Spanish-controlled Caribbean, first in Santo Domingo, and then to a smaller extent in Cuba and Puerto Rico. Christopher Columbus (l. 1451-1506) had introduced sugar cane to the region on his second voyage of 1493. The Spanish were still much more interested in finding gold and silver, but they found the profit of sugar too enticing to pass up. They imported skilled sugar masters from the Canaries in 1515 and sent their first shipment of sugar to Europe soon after.

? ? ? ? ? ?16世紀，糖業(yè)生產(chǎn)的中心開始轉(zhuǎn)移到西班牙控制的加勒比地區(qū)，首先是圣多明各，然后是古巴和波多黎各，范圍較小?？死锼苟喔！じ鐐惒迹?451-1506年）在1493年的第二次航行中將甘蔗帶入該地區(qū)。西班牙人仍然對尋找黃金和白銀更感興趣，但他們發(fā)現(xiàn)糖的利潤太誘人了，無法放棄。1515年，他們從加那利群島引進了熟練的制糖師，并在不久之后向歐洲輸送第一批糖。

The Portuguese discovered Brazil in 1500, and it did not take them long to begin planting sugar cane there. The first sugar plantation was established in 1518, and by the late 1500s, Brazil had become the leading supplier of sugar to the European markets. Brazilian sugar production reached its peak in the 1620s in the Pernambuco and Bahia regions, at about 15,000-20,000 tons a year.

? ? ? ? ? 葡萄牙人在1500年發(fā)現(xiàn)了巴西，沒過多久他們就開始在那里種植甘蔗。巴西第一個甘蔗種植園于1518年建立，到15世紀末，巴西已成為歐洲市場的主要糖類供應(yīng)產(chǎn)地。巴西伯南布哥和巴伊亞地區(qū)的糖產(chǎn)量在1620年達到頂峰，每年約15,000-20,000噸。

When the Portuguese arrived in Brazil in the early 1500s, they quickly set about subjugating the local Tupi to work in their mines and harvest their sugar cane. However, the Tupi proved to be poorly adapted to the routine, sedentary lifestyle of farming and were particularly uncooperative slaves. They were also very subject to western diseases and found it relatively easy to run away and hide in the dense forest. The Portuguese solution to this labor problem was to turn to the African slave trade, a system they had already employed in their Atlantic sugar plantations off the coast of Africa. By the mid-16th century, African slavery predominated on the sugar plantations of Brazil, although the enslavement of the indigenous people continued well into the 17th century.

? ? ? ? ??當葡萄牙人在15世紀初到達巴西時，他們迅速著手征服當?shù)氐膱D皮人，讓他們在礦場工作，并派他們收獲甘蔗。事實證明，圖皮人很不適應(yīng)常規(guī)的、定居的農(nóng)耕生活，而且是特別“不友好”的奴隸。他們也很容易受到西方疾病的影響，而且當?shù)厝颂优芎投阍诿芰种泻苋菀?。葡萄牙解決這一勞動力問題的辦法是轉(zhuǎn)向非洲奴隸貿(mào)易，他們已經(jīng)在非洲沿海的大西洋糖業(yè)種植園中采用了這一制度。到16世紀中期，非洲奴隸制在巴西的糖業(yè)種植園中占主導(dǎo)地位，葡萄牙人對原住民的奴役一直持續(xù)到17世紀。

The burgeoning sugar industry of the Portuguese was first largely financed by Dutch merchants, but the Dutch eventually established their own colony in northeastern Brazil. There they were active sugar producers from 1630 to 1654, until they were expelled by the Portuguese. The Dutch took their money, expertise, and shipping to the Caribbean, which was now being actively colonized by the British and French. Within 30 years, the Caribbean took over dominance of worldwide sugar production, driving the price of Brazilian sugar down by two-thirds and severely reducing their exports.

? ? ? ? ? 葡萄牙人蓬勃發(fā)展的制糖業(yè)最初主要由荷蘭商人提供資金，但荷蘭人最終也在巴西東北部建立了自己的殖民地。從1630年到1654年，他們在那里是活躍的糖業(yè)生產(chǎn)者，直到被葡萄牙人驅(qū)逐。荷蘭人把他們的資金、專業(yè)知識和航運帶到了加勒比地區(qū)，而此時的加勒比地區(qū)正被英國和法國殖民。在30年內(nèi)，加勒比地區(qū)占據(jù)了世界糖業(yè)生產(chǎn)的主導(dǎo)地位，使巴西糖的價格下降了三分之二，并嚴重影響了巴西糖的出口。

加勒比海地區(qū)的糖業(yè)

The Brazilian sugar industry found its competition, first from the tiny island of Barbados, and ultimately from a hodgepodge of British-, French-, and Dutch-controlled islands. Originally settled in 1627, Barbados became one massive sugar factory by the 1640s, dominated by a handful of large plantation owners. Plantation life and labor were hard and fast, with lives being shortened by rampant disease and booze, but the hardiest (and lucky) amassed vast sums of wealth and lived opulent lifestyles patterned after that of the British Royalty.

? ? ? ? ? 巴西的制糖業(yè)出現(xiàn)了競爭對手，首先是來自巴巴多斯島；緊接著，英國、法國和荷蘭控制的加勒比諸島。巴巴多斯最初于1627年有人定居，到1640年代成為一個巨大的制糖工廠，由少數(shù)幾個大種植園主控制。種植園的生活和勞動是艱苦而快速的，猖獗的疾病和酗酒縮短了人們的生命，但最頑強的人（和幸運的人）積累了大量的財富，過著仿照英國皇室的富足生活。

By the late 1600s, sugar production was important on a number of Caribbean Islands including the British-controlled Antigua and Nevis, French-controlled Martinique, Guadeloupe and St. Dominique (now Haiti), and French- and British-controlled sections of St. Kitts. Dutch merchants had amassed great wealth ferreting goods to and from the islands. Ultimately, British Jamaica became the crown jewel of Caribbean sugar production, after a long and difficult settlement period.

? ? ? ? ? 到16世紀末，糖的生產(chǎn)在一些加勒比群島上變得非常重要，包括英國控制的安提瓜和尼維斯、法國控制的馬提尼克、瓜德羅普和圣多米尼克（現(xiàn)在的海地）以及法國和英國控制的圣基茨部分。荷蘭商人通過在這些島嶼上運輸貨物積累了大量財富。最終，英屬牙買加在經(jīng)歷了漫長而艱難的定居期后，成為加勒比海糖業(yè)生產(chǎn)的皇冠上的明珠。

糖與政治

The most productive years of sugar production in the Caribbean coincided with a tumultuous period of European politics, when France, England, Spain, and the Netherlands were continually at war in various combinations. All the European conflicts spilled over into the Caribbean, and the importance of the Caribbean sugar plantations to the European economy had far-ranging effects on North America. By the 1700s, sugar was the most important internationally traded commodity and was responsible for a third of the whole European economy. The English Islands also produced considerable quantities of rum consumed by British drinkers all across the world, while the French shipped vast quantities of molasses to the British American colonies, where it was made into rum and sold throughout the continent.

? ? ? ? ? 加勒比海地區(qū)糖業(yè)生產(chǎn)最豐收的時期恰好是歐洲政治的動蕩時期，當時法國、英國、西班牙和荷蘭以不同的聯(lián)盟形式不斷地進行戰(zhàn)爭。所有的歐洲沖突都波及到了加勒比地區(qū)，加勒比地區(qū)的糖業(yè)種植園對歐洲經(jīng)濟的重要性對北美產(chǎn)生了深遠的影響。到1700年代，糖是最重要的國際貿(mào)易商品，占整個歐洲經(jīng)濟的三分之一。英格蘭群島還生產(chǎn)了相當數(shù)量的朗姆酒，供世界各地的英國人飲用，而法國人則將大量的糖蜜運到英屬美洲殖民地，在那里制成朗姆酒并銷往整個大陸。

When the British northern colonies declared their independence in 1776, the subsequent war was really fought by the British on two fronts, North America and the Caribbean. The Caribbean sugar industry was simply too valuable to be ignored and it was a much more important component of the British economy than the northern colonies. Britain had no choice but to maintain a strong force in the Caribbean during the Revolutionary War. It is likely that this attention aided the northern colonists greatly in winning their independence.

? ? ? ? ? 當美洲北方殖民地在1776年宣布獨立時，隨后的戰(zhàn)爭實際上是英國人在兩條戰(zhàn)線上進行的，即北美和加勒比。加勒比海的制糖業(yè)太有價值了，不容忽視，它是英國經(jīng)濟中比北方殖民地更重要的組成部分。在革命戰(zhàn)爭期間，英國別無選擇，只能在加勒比地區(qū)保持一支強大的力量。這種形式很可能對北方殖民者贏得獨立有很大幫助。

圣多明各的奴隸起義（海地革命）

By the 18th century, the center of sugar production had moved to St. Dominque, the French half of Hispaniola. Thousands of sugar plantations now dotted its landscape and it had become the richest sugar island. This dominance would literally go up in flames at the end of the century when the slaves successfully rebelled and established a free nation. This freedom was won by defeating the armies of Europe’s leading powers, first France and then Great Britain. A man named Toussaint became the de facto ruler of St. Dominique, calling himself “L’Ouverture” ("the opening"). On 1 January 1804, St. Dominque was declared independent and became Haiti, the second nation in the Americas (after the United States) to free itself from European control. Fittingly, Haiti was the original indigenous Arawak’s name for Hispaniola.

? ? ? ? ? 到了18世紀，糖業(yè)生產(chǎn)的中心已經(jīng)轉(zhuǎn)移到了圣多明各，即伊斯帕尼奧拉島的法屬部分。數(shù)以千計的糖業(yè)種植園點綴其間，它已成為最富有的糖島。在本世紀末，當奴隸們成功反叛并建立起一個自由國家時，這種統(tǒng)治地位實際上就被燒毀了。這一自由是通過擊敗歐洲主要大國的軍隊贏得的，首先是法國，然后是英國。一個名叫杜?！けR維杜爾的人成為圣多米尼克的實際統(tǒng)治者，自稱 "L'Ouverture"（"開幕"）。1804年1月1日，圣多明各宣布獨立，更名海地，這是美洲第二個擺脫歐洲控制的國家（繼美國之后）。恰如其分的是，海地是原住民阿拉瓦克人對伊斯帕尼奧拉的稱呼。

The Founding Fathers of the United States wrested mightily over the concept of Haiti. There was widespread fear that a similar rebellion could occur in the southern US among the hundreds of thousands of slaves held in captivity. The recognition of Haiti stood in limbo in the US for over 60 years, waiting until President Abraham Lincoln acknowledged it in 1862 during the Civil War, just before his landmark Emancipation Proclamation.

? ? ? ? ? 美國的開國元勛們?yōu)楹５氐母拍钸M行了激烈的角力。人們普遍擔(dān)心在美國南部被囚禁的數(shù)十萬奴隸中會發(fā)生類似的叛亂。在美國，對海地的承認被擱置了60多年，直到1862年內(nèi)戰(zhàn)期間，林肯總統(tǒng)在發(fā)表具有里程碑意義的《解放奴隸宣言》之前承認了海地。

After the Haitian revolution, many sugar planters fled to Cuba and Louisiana. Cuba soon became the world center of sugar production, while Louisiana became the sugar bowel of the US. The whole plantation system of the Caribbean was essentially transferred to Cuba and Louisiana, where slavery still existed.

? ? ? ? ? 海地革命后，許多糖業(yè)種植者逃往古巴和路易斯安那州。古巴很快成為世界糖業(yè)生產(chǎn)中心，而路易斯安那州則成為美國的糖業(yè)大本營。加勒比海地區(qū)的整個種植園系統(tǒng)基本上被轉(zhuǎn)移到古巴和路易斯安那州，那里仍然存在著奴隸制。

When the Civil War began and cut off sugar supplies from Louisiana to the North, Hawaii became the new sugar production center for the US. Sugar cane had actually arrived in Hawaii in prehistoric times and was being grown there by the indigenous people long before Cook’s discovery of the islands, but modern plantations were not established until the mid-1800s.

? ? ? ? ? 美國內(nèi)戰(zhàn)開始后，切斷了從路易斯安那到北方的糖供應(yīng)，夏威夷成為美國新的糖生產(chǎn)中心。實際上，甘蔗在史前時代就已經(jīng)到達夏威夷，早在庫克發(fā)現(xiàn)該島之前，當?shù)厝司鸵呀?jīng)開始種植甘蔗，但現(xiàn)代種植園直到19世紀中期才建立起來。

Numerous other sugar centers cropped up across the globe in the mid to late 19th century including British and Dutch Guiana (Guyana), East Africa, Mauritius, Natal (South Africa), and Queensland (Australia). Slavery had been abolished across most of the world by then, and these sugar plantations all came to depend on indentured workers, mostly from India. Over one million Indian indentured workers went to sugar plantations from 1835 to 1917, 450,000 to Mauritius, 150, 000 to East Africa and Natal, and 450,000 to South America and the Caribbean.

? ? ? ? ? 19世紀中后期，全球出現(xiàn)了許多糖業(yè)中心，包括英屬和荷屬圭亞那（圭亞那）、東非、毛里求斯、納塔爾（南非）和昆士蘭（澳大利亞）。那時，世界上大部分地區(qū)已經(jīng)廢除了奴隸制，這些糖業(yè)種植園都依賴契約工人，大部分來自印度。從1835年到1917年，超過100萬印度契約工人前往糖業(yè)種植園，45萬前往毛里求斯，15萬前往東非和納塔爾，45萬前往南美和加勒比地區(qū)。

荷蘭在爪哇的制糖業(yè)

In the mid-1800s, the Dutch built a huge sugar industry in Java by exploiting the native people. The Javanese were required to grow cane for them, deliver it to factories, and then work in those factories. At the heart of what was called the “Cultivation System” were 94 water-powered Dutch sugar factories, which processed raw cane into refined sugar. In the 1850s, the Dutch collected detailed information on over 10,000 villages and came up with a plan where catchment areas were identified with a radius of approximately 4-7 kilometers around each factory. All villages within these catchment areas were then reorganized to grow cane.

? ? ? ? ? 19世紀中期，荷蘭人通過剝削當?shù)厝嗽谧ν劢⒘艘粋€巨大的制糖業(yè)。爪哇人被要求為他們種植甘蔗，把甘蔗送到工廠，然后在這些工廠工作。被稱為"種植系統(tǒng)"的核心是94家以水為動力的荷蘭糖廠，它們將原料甘蔗加工成精制糖。在19世紀50年代，荷蘭人收集了超過10,000個村莊的詳細信息，并制定了一個計劃，在每個工廠周圍約4-7公里的范圍內(nèi)確定集水區(qū)。然后，這些集水區(qū)的所有村莊被重新組織起來種植甘蔗。

Over the course of the system, millions of Javanese worked in sugar processing and transport - via both forced and free labor. By one estimate, a quarter of the population was involved in the industry. The system became so massive, that in the mid-19th century, sugar production in Java accounted for one-third of the Dutch government’s revenues and 4 percent of Dutch GDP. Java came to be one of the world’s most financially lucrative colonies.

? ? ? ? ? 在這個系統(tǒng)中，數(shù)以百萬計的爪哇人被強迫或自由勞動從事糖的加工和運輸工作。據(jù)估計，有四分之一的爪哇人參與了這個行業(yè)。這個系統(tǒng)變得如此龐大，以至于在19世紀中期，爪哇的糖業(yè)生產(chǎn)占荷蘭政府收入的三分之一，占荷蘭國內(nèi)生產(chǎn)總值的4%。爪哇成為世界上最有利可圖的殖民地之一。

In 1870, an Agrarian Law was passed in the Netherlands that abolished forced labor and allowed private companies to lease land in sparsely populated areas. This led to widespread investment in larger plantations and a great expansion into western Java and Sumatra. Sugar was joined by coffee, tea, and tobacco. The early plantations were begun by private investors, but over time were replaced by international corporations. The labor pool shifted from forced family units to indentured servants, mostly illiterate peasants from Java and Singapore.

? ? ? ? ? 1870年，荷蘭通過了一項土地法，廢除了強迫勞動，并允許私人公司在人口稀少的地區(qū)租賃土地。這導(dǎo)致人們對大型種植園的廣泛投資，并向爪哇島西部和蘇門答臘島進行了大規(guī)模擴張。除了糖，還有咖啡、茶和煙草。早期的種植園是由私人投資者創(chuàng)辦的，但隨著時間的推移，它們逐漸被國際公司所取代。勞動力從強迫家庭單位轉(zhuǎn)向契約仆人，大多數(shù)是來自爪哇和新加坡的文盲農(nóng)民。

甜菜的出現(xiàn)和當今的制糖業(yè)

During the Napoleonic Wars (1803-1815), cane sugar was no longer available in French-controlled Europe due to the naval blockade of the British. To satisfy the French sweet tooth, the humble beet, already a source of food and fodder in Europe, came to be grown and processed for its sugar. The amount of sugar in the beets was then much lower than sugar cane, and the extraction process was costlier, but it was pretty much the only source of sugar available. Napoleon ordered the planting of thousands of acres of sugar beets, and by 1814 more than 300 factories were making sugar from beets. When Napoleon’s empire collapsed after Waterloo, the boycott was lifted, and the cheaper Caribbean cane sugar took back its European dominance.

? ? ? ? ? ?在拿破侖戰(zhàn)爭（1803-1815）期間，由于英國的海上封鎖，法國控制的歐洲糖源緊缺。為了滿足法國人對甜食的需求，在歐洲原本是食物和飼料的不起眼的甜菜開始被種植和加工成糖。當時甜菜的含糖量比甘蔗低得多，而且提取過程成本較高，但這幾乎是當時法國唯一的糖源了。拿破侖下令種植數(shù)千英畝的甜菜，到1814年，有300多家工廠在用甜菜制糖。當拿破侖的帝國在滑鐵盧戰(zhàn)役后崩潰時，甜菜制糖被取消了，更便宜的加勒比海蔗糖奪回了它在歐洲的主導(dǎo)地位。

Sugar production from beets remained in the twilight for several decades, until the British banned slavery in the Caribbean, causing cane sugar prices to rise substantially. By now, beets had been selected with sugar levels that were comparable to sugar cane and the cost of extraction had dropped dramatically. Now the two kinds of sugar were almost on equal footing. By 1854, 11% of the world’s sugar came from beets and by 1899 65% more sugar was extracted from sugar beets than sugar cane.

? ? ? ? ? 幾十年來，甜菜制糖一直處于低迷狀態(tài)，直到英國禁止加勒比海地區(qū)的奴隸制，導(dǎo)致蔗糖價格大幅上漲。到現(xiàn)在，好的甜菜品種已經(jīng)被選育出來，其糖分水平與甘蔗相當，而且提取成本也大幅下降?，F(xiàn)在這兩種糖幾乎處于平等地位。到1854年，世界上11%的糖來自甜菜，到1899年，從甜菜中提取的糖比甘蔗多65%。

Today, Brazil is once again the leading sugar producer in the world, followed by India, the EU, China, Thailand, and then the USA. Brazil, India, and Thailand grow almost exclusively sugar cane, while the EU is predominantly sugar beet, the US is about 50%, and China is 20% sugar beet. Most of the labor force in today’s cane fields are still workers brought in from outside the production regions by labor managers. These workers continue to serve as cheap labor almost as slaves when money for food, housing, and other necessities is deducted from their salary leaving them in debt.

? ? ? ? ? 如今，巴西再次成為世界上主要的糖生產(chǎn)國，其次是印度、歐盟、中國、泰國，然后是美國。巴西、印度和泰國幾乎完全種植甘蔗，而歐盟主要是甜菜，美國約為50%，中國為20%的甜菜。今天甘蔗田里的大部分勞動力仍然是由勞工經(jīng)理從生產(chǎn)地區(qū)以外帶進來的工人。這些工人繼續(xù)充當廉價勞動力，但他們幾乎等同于“奴隸”，因為購買食物、住房和其他必需品的錢被從工資中扣除，使他們負債累累。

參考書目：

Aronson, Marc & Budhos, Marina. Sugar Changed the World. Clarion Books, 2010.

Burns, E. Bradford. A History of Brazil . Columbia University Press, 1993.

Daniels, J. & Daniels, C. . "Sugarcane in prehistory." Archaeology in Oceania, 28, 1993, pp. 1-7.

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Hancock, James F. Plantation Crops, Plunder and Power . Routledge, 2017.

Luiten van Zanden, J. "Colonial state formation and patterns of economic development in Java, 1800-1913." Economic History of Developing Regions, 25(2), 2010, pp. 155-176.

Macinnis, Peter. Bittersweet. Allen & Unwin, 2003.

Parker, Matthew. Sugar Barons. Windmill, 2012.

Sokolow, Jayme A. The Great Encounter. Routledge, 2002.

Sugar: World Markets and Trade Accessed 18 Jun 2021.

Warner, J. N. "Sugar Cane: An Indigenous Papuan cultigen." Ethnology, 1, 1974, pp. 405-411.

Watson, A. M. "The Arab Agricultural Revolution and its diffusion, 700-1100." The Journal of Economic History, 34, 1974, pp. 8-35.

原文作者：James F. Hancock

? ? ? ? ? James F. Hancock是一名自由撰稿人，密歇根州立大學(xué)的名譽教授。他的研究領(lǐng)域是作物進化和貿(mào)易史。他的書包括《香料、香味和絲綢》（CABI），以及《種植園作物》（Routledge）

原文網(wǎng)址：

https://www.worldhistory.org/article/1784/sugar--the-rise-of-the-plantation-system/

封面：1800 年代在美國南部種植園的奴隸切割甘蔗的插圖