內(nèi)容概要

介紹--設(shè)計(jì)與博雅科學(xué)

1. 設(shè)計(jì)思維應(yīng)當(dāng)作為新時(shí)代科技文化背景下的一個(gè)博雅科學(xué) ( liberal art ）:

1. 客觀上，現(xiàn)如今設(shè)計(jì)的內(nèi)涵在被不斷擴(kuò)大，無(wú)法被局限在任何單一科學(xué)的定義中

2. 19世紀(jì)以前，新的知識(shí)多通過(guò)專(zhuān)業(yè)細(xì)化得到（憑借更為精密的工具+更專(zhuān)業(yè)的思維+精細(xì)的界定），比如化學(xué)細(xì)化為有機(jī)，無(wú)機(jī)等。但如今新的知識(shí)誕生往往發(fā)生在各個(gè)學(xué)科綜合交叉領(lǐng)域，例如以物理學(xué)原理來(lái)控制化學(xué)變化，以計(jì)算機(jī)技術(shù)來(lái)推演生物變異等

3. 設(shè)計(jì)所面臨的問(wèn)題多數(shù)是抗解問(wèn)題（Wicked Problems), 無(wú)法被清晰界定，且永遠(yuǎn)處于變化過(guò)程中，無(wú)法通過(guò)任何單一科學(xué)所使用的知識(shí)，技能，范式等進(jìn)行解決

4. 越來(lái)越細(xì)化和分化的學(xué)科趨勢(shì)，切斷了各學(xué)科之間的聯(lián)系，切斷了與實(shí)際生活的聯(lián)系，無(wú)法應(yīng)對(duì)這些wick problems。設(shè)計(jì)正在探索知識(shí)的具體整合形式，把理論與實(shí)踐結(jié)合起來(lái)達(dá)到創(chuàng)新的目的。

Although these subjects contribute to the advance of knowledge, they also contribute to its fragmentation, as they have become progressively narrow in scope, more numerous, and have lost "connection with each other and with the common problems and matters of daily life from which they select aspects for precise methodological analysis".

設(shè)計(jì)與"目的性活動(dòng)"

1. 設(shè)計(jì)作為博雅科學(xué)的歷史，可以追溯到約翰·杜威《尋求確定性：一種知行關(guān)系的研究中》。這本書(shū)將"人類(lèi)認(rèn)識(shí)客觀事物的這種運(yùn)動(dòng)，當(dāng)成是科學(xué)本身

2. 新舊認(rèn)知世界（學(xué)科）的差異在于：過(guò)程的確定性和不確定性，結(jié)果的封閉性和開(kāi)放性，主觀目的性的影響程度。他們的根源在于認(rèn)知思維是植根于專(zhuān)業(yè)化還是整合

3. science, art, and practice. science（自然物質(zhì)，知識(shí)），art（認(rèn)知思維），practice（實(shí)踐，影響現(xiàn)實(shí)世界的活動(dòng)），technology是人出于一定的目的，在art（認(rèn)知）和science（科學(xué)）的作用下產(chǎn)生的技藝

4. 知識(shí)不再通過(guò)舊的模式和固定的自然規(guī)律產(chǎn)生，而是通過(guò)變化的新認(rèn)知而產(chǎn)生的。（整合）

5. 技藝是是在科學(xué)中自發(fā)進(jìn)行的「目的性活動(dòng)」，以及生產(chǎn)、技巧或社會(huì)和政治行動(dòng)的技巧。不能將其當(dāng)成是一種特定類(lèi)型的產(chǎn)品，而忽略了創(chuàng)造技藝的認(rèn)知。

6. 目前面臨的挑戰(zhàn)是需要加深對(duì)設(shè)計(jì)思維的理解，使那些將設(shè)計(jì)思維應(yīng)用于顯著不同的問(wèn)題和主題的人之間有更多的合作和互利。在科研工作者和設(shè)計(jì)工作者之間的交流障礙依舊存在

7. 當(dāng)科學(xué)界和設(shè)計(jì)界沒(méi)有形成對(duì)設(shè)計(jì)思維的共識(shí)的話，那么設(shè)計(jì)師有時(shí)候不得不退回到原有的傳統(tǒng)技巧和工藝語(yǔ)言來(lái)為自己的作品辯護(hù)

The old center of the universe was the mind knowing by means of an equipment of powers complete within itself, and merely exercised upon an antecedent external material equally complete within itself.

認(rèn)知世界（學(xué)科）是通過(guò)本身固有的認(rèn)知體系和工具自我完善而來(lái)，新認(rèn)知的產(chǎn)生是先前認(rèn)知的發(fā)展，并統(tǒng)一于這個(gè)認(rèn)知世界。

What Dewey describes here is the root of the difference between the old and new liberal arts, between specialization in the facts of a subject matter and the use of new disciplines of integrative thinking.

It would then be seen that science is an art, that art is practice, and that the only distinction worth drawing is not between practice and theory, but between those modes of practice that are not intelligent, not inherently and immediately enjoyable, and those which are full of enjoyed meanings.

Instead of meaning knowledge of how to make and use artifacts or the artifacts themselves, technology for Dewey is an art of experimental thinking.

定位理論

1. “博雅學(xué)科”，是一門(mén)思維的學(xué)科，可以在一定程度上讓任何人來(lái)學(xué)習(xí)。相應(yīng)的，也應(yīng)該要有一部分人反復(fù)實(shí)踐設(shè)計(jì)思維從而獲得對(duì)其獨(dú)特洞察力，因?yàn)檫@樣才會(huì)把學(xué)科推進(jìn)到新的創(chuàng)新應(yīng)用領(lǐng)域。

2. 設(shè)計(jì)思維作為博雅科學(xué)的開(kāi)端呈現(xiàn)在“設(shè)計(jì)師將傳統(tǒng)的藝術(shù)和科學(xué)，應(yīng)用于一種新的對(duì)日常生活經(jīng)驗(yàn)的問(wèn)題的研究上?！本唧w體現(xiàn)在四個(gè)領(lǐng)域：符號(hào)和傳達(dá)設(shè)計(jì)，物質(zhì)的設(shè)計(jì)（工業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)），活動(dòng)和有組織的服務(wù)，為工作生活、學(xué)習(xí)娛樂(lè)而設(shè)計(jì)的復(fù)雜系統(tǒng)或環(huán)境。

3. 符號(hào)和傳達(dá)的設(shè)計(jì)（視覺(jué)傳達(dá)）。其包括傳統(tǒng)的平面設(shè)計(jì)，如排版印刷、廣告、書(shū)籍雜志的裝幀印刷、專(zhuān)業(yè)插畫(huà)等，同時(shí)也擴(kuò)展到了攝影、電影、電視和數(shù)字傳媒。傳達(dá)設(shè)計(jì)正迅速發(fā)展成一個(gè)寬泛的研究領(lǐng)域，通過(guò)融合語(yǔ)言和圖像的新手段來(lái)探討傳達(dá)設(shè)計(jì)中的信息、思想和爭(zhēng)論的問(wèn)題。而這種手段正在轉(zhuǎn)變過(guò)去「用書(shū)傳達(dá)」的文化。

4. 物質(zhì)的設(shè)計(jì)（工業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)）。這包括產(chǎn)品造型和視覺(jué)感知之間關(guān)聯(lián)的傳統(tǒng)領(lǐng)域，比如說(shuō)服裝、家具、工具、儀器、機(jī)械和交通工具。 同樣的，它的邊界也已經(jīng)擴(kuò)展到了對(duì)人機(jī)之間物質(zhì)上、精神上、社會(huì)文化關(guān)系上的更徹底、更多元的理解。這一領(lǐng)域正在迅速發(fā)展為一種對(duì)于構(gòu)造問(wèn)題的探索。我們需要進(jìn)入到形狀和視覺(jué)外觀更深入的、更綜合的論證階段，將藝術(shù)、工程、自然科學(xué)以及人類(lèi)科學(xué)的各個(gè)方面結(jié)合起來(lái)思考。

5. 活動(dòng)和有組織的服務(wù)。其中包括傳統(tǒng)的組織工作管理，將實(shí)體資源、設(shè)備資源和人力資源有效整合進(jìn)工作流與計(jì)劃表中，以達(dá)到預(yù)期或指定的目標(biāo)。然而，這一領(lǐng)域已擴(kuò)展到邏輯決策和戰(zhàn)略規(guī)劃的關(guān)注范圍，并迅速演變?yōu)樘剿髟诰唧w場(chǎng)景下如何利用設(shè)計(jì)思維更好地實(shí)現(xiàn)絲滑的體驗(yàn)流程，并讓這種經(jīng)歷更加容易感知、有意義和令人滿意。這一領(lǐng)域的中心主題是聯(lián)系與次序。設(shè)計(jì)師們正在探索日常生活中越來(lái)越廣泛的聯(lián)系，以及不同類(lèi)型的聯(lián)系如何影響行為的結(jié)構(gòu)。

6. 為工作生活、學(xué)習(xí)娛樂(lè)而設(shè)計(jì)的復(fù)雜系統(tǒng)或環(huán)境。這包括了傳統(tǒng)的系統(tǒng)工程、建筑學(xué)、城市規(guī)劃（或者說(shuō)復(fù)雜整體的局部功能分析和再?gòu)?fù)合時(shí)的層級(jí)分析）。但這個(gè)領(lǐng)域如今也擴(kuò)大并展現(xiàn)了更多的意識(shí)，即表達(dá)了統(tǒng)一任意平衡和良性運(yùn)作的整體的中心觀點(diǎn)、思想或價(jià)值。目前人類(lèi)正在維持、發(fā)展和整合更廣泛的生態(tài)和文化環(huán)境，在需要的時(shí)候塑造環(huán)境，在必要的情況下適應(yīng)環(huán)境。而這個(gè)領(lǐng)域也越來(lái)越關(guān)注探索設(shè)計(jì)在這個(gè)過(guò)程中的角色。

7. 這四個(gè)領(lǐng)域指向人類(lèi)經(jīng)驗(yàn)中的某些客觀性，同時(shí)如今的設(shè)計(jì)師在這些領(lǐng)域中的工作也為人類(lèi)的體驗(yàn)創(chuàng)造了一個(gè)框架。這些領(lǐng)域相互關(guān)聯(lián)并且平等，任何一個(gè)都不應(yīng)該被優(yōu)先考慮。例如，符號(hào)、實(shí)物、行為和思想的一個(gè)次序可以被視為從「混亂的部分」到「有序的整體」的一個(gè)上升梯度。符號(hào)和圖像是反映我們對(duì)實(shí)物的感知的經(jīng)驗(yàn)片段。而實(shí)物又可以成為行為的工具。在復(fù)雜的環(huán)境中，一個(gè)統(tǒng)一的觀念或思想把符號(hào)、實(shí)物和行為組織在一起。但是，我們沒(méi)有理由可以證實(shí)部分與整體的次序必須是上升的而不是下降。畢竟零件和整體有很多種類(lèi)，并且可以用多種方式加以定義。根據(jù)設(shè)計(jì)者希望如何探索和組織經(jīng)驗(yàn)，整個(gè)序列可以合理地被視為一種從混亂環(huán)境到統(tǒng)一符號(hào)的下降梯度。事實(shí)上，符號(hào)，實(shí)物，行為和思想不僅是相互關(guān)聯(lián)的，它們也互相滲透與融合，吸收當(dāng)代的設(shè)計(jì)思維與令人驚訝的次序，從而誕生創(chuàng)新。這些領(lǐng)域暗示了設(shè)計(jì)的歷史與當(dāng)今的脈絡(luò)，以及指向未來(lái)設(shè)計(jì)的方向。

8. 如果不想把設(shè)計(jì)思維當(dāng)成創(chuàng)新上一系列的巧合，那么理解「類(lèi)目」和「定位」之間的區(qū)別是很重要的?！付ㄎ弧沟倪吔缃o思考提供了一個(gè)情景和方向，但是應(yīng)用到一個(gè)特定的情境可以產(chǎn)生對(duì)這種情況的新的感知，因此就會(huì)產(chǎn)生一種新的可待測(cè)試的可能性。然而，當(dāng)設(shè)計(jì)師概念中的「定位」成為「類(lèi)目」上的思考時(shí)，那結(jié)果可能是對(duì)早期創(chuàng)造物的矯飾模仿，而這種新發(fā)明不再與新情況下特定可能性的發(fā)現(xiàn)相關(guān)。設(shè)計(jì)師會(huì)把想法強(qiáng)加到這個(gè)場(chǎng)景中，而不是從這個(gè)場(chǎng)景的特殊性和新的可能性中發(fā)現(xiàn)一些好的想法。

9. 設(shè)計(jì)師探索符號(hào)、實(shí)體、行為和思想之間的新關(guān)系的能力象征著設(shè)計(jì)不僅僅是一門(mén)高度專(zhuān)業(yè)化的職業(yè)，更是一門(mén)新的博雅學(xué)科。

For example, the sequence of signs, things, actions, and thought could be regarded as an ascent from confusing parts to orderly wholes. Signs and images are fragments of experience that reflect our perception of material objects. Material objects, in turn, become instruments of action. Signs, things, and actions are organized in complex environments by a unitying idea or thought. But there is no reason to believe that parts and wholes must be treated in ascending rather than descending order. Parts and whole are of many types and may be defined in many ways. Depending on how a designer wishes to explore and organize experience, the sequence could just as reasonably be regarded as a descent from chaotic environments to the unity provided by symbols and images. In fact, signs, things, actions, and thoughts are not only interconnected, they also interpenetrate and merge in contemporary design thinking with surprising consequences for innovation. These areas suggest the lineage of design's past and present, as well as point to where design is headed in the future.

The ability of designers to discover new relationships among signs, things, actions, and thoughts is one indication that design is not merely a technical specialization but a new liberal art.

設(shè)計(jì)的「抗解問(wèn)題」理論

1. 許多不同的線性模型：設(shè)計(jì)過(guò)程分為兩個(gè)不同的階段：定義問(wèn)題和解決問(wèn)題。定義問(wèn)題是一個(gè)分析過(guò)程，設(shè)計(jì)師在其中確定問(wèn)題的所有元素，并指定成功的設(shè)計(jì)解決方案必須具備的所有要點(diǎn)。解決問(wèn)題是一個(gè)整合的過(guò)程，在這個(gè)過(guò)程中，各種需求相互結(jié)合并相互平衡，產(chǎn)生一個(gè)最終的方案并進(jìn)行執(zhí)行。

2. 兩個(gè)明顯的弱點(diǎn)：一，設(shè)計(jì)思維和決策的實(shí)際過(guò)程不是一個(gè)簡(jiǎn)單的線性過(guò)程；二、設(shè)計(jì)師所提出的問(wèn)題在實(shí)際中并不適用于任何一種線性分析和整合的模型。

3. Rittel 提出一個(gè)觀點(diǎn)：大多數(shù)的設(shè)計(jì)師解決的問(wèn)題是「抗解問(wèn)題」。 Rittel 認(rèn)為「抗解問(wèn)題」是一類(lèi)“很難被架構(gòu)的「社會(huì)系統(tǒng)問(wèn)題」，其中的信息是混亂的，許多客戶(hù)和決策者的價(jià)值觀沖突，整個(gè)系統(tǒng)的結(jié)果難以預(yù)料，并讓人十分困擾?！?/p>

4. 設(shè)計(jì)思維中存在「確定性」與「不確定性」之間的關(guān)系。設(shè)計(jì)思維的線性模型是建立在 “問(wèn)題可以被定義” 這個(gè)條件的基礎(chǔ)上的。而設(shè)計(jì)師的任務(wù)是精確識(shí)別這些條件，然后計(jì)算解決方案。相反，「抗解問(wèn)題」這種觀點(diǎn)表明，幾乎所有的設(shè)計(jì)問(wèn)題都存在一個(gè)根本的不確定性。

5. 設(shè)計(jì)師往往從一般和特殊這兩個(gè)層面研究他們的研究主題。在一般這個(gè)層面上，設(shè)計(jì)師在思考一個(gè)關(guān)于產(chǎn)品或人工制品本質(zhì)的想法或「基礎(chǔ)假設(shè)」的時(shí)候。形成的觀點(diǎn)可能是與「自然」相對(duì)的 「人工」。在這個(gè)程度上說(shuō)，設(shè)計(jì)師就有了一個(gè)對(duì)設(shè)計(jì)的本質(zhì)及其適用范圍的大局觀。事實(shí)上，回顧大多數(shù)設(shè)計(jì)師的行為，他們會(huì)更樂(lè)意從整體的角度來(lái)去解釋的設(shè)計(jì)的研究主題。這些解釋經(jīng)過(guò)發(fā)展和充分展現(xiàn)后，會(huì)變成設(shè)計(jì)的哲學(xué)或者是哲學(xué)的初步形態(tài)，存在于設(shè)計(jì)的諸多子領(lǐng)域中。他們?yōu)槊恳晃辉O(shè)計(jì)師提供了一個(gè)基本的框架來(lái)理解和探索設(shè)計(jì)思維的物質(zhì)、方法和原則。但從任何自然、社會(huì)或人文科學(xué)的那種程度來(lái)說(shuō)，這樣的哲學(xué)并不能等同于設(shè)計(jì)的科學(xué)。原因很簡(jiǎn)單：設(shè)計(jì)基本上與特殊有關(guān)，而特殊沒(méi)有「科學(xué)」一說(shuō)。

6. 在實(shí)踐中，設(shè)計(jì)師從應(yīng)該稱(chēng)為「準(zhǔn)主題」的主題開(kāi)始。而準(zhǔn)主題藏在于具體情況下的問(wèn)題中。出于具體情況的特定的可能性，設(shè)計(jì)師必須構(gòu)思出一種設(shè)計(jì)，引導(dǎo)出某種特定的產(chǎn)品。

7. 「準(zhǔn)主題」不是一個(gè)準(zhǔn)備被確定的待確定的主題。它是一個(gè)不確定的主題，需要被特殊化和具體化。例如，客戶(hù)的需求說(shuō)明往往沒(méi)有給出具體的設(shè)計(jì)主題的定義或者特定的設(shè)計(jì)應(yīng)用。他們只提出了一個(gè)問(wèn)題和在解決這個(gè)問(wèn)題時(shí)要考慮的一系列問(wèn)題。但是在某種情況下，客戶(hù)又會(huì)非常詳細(xì)地指定要計(jì)劃中的產(chǎn)品的特定特性。這種情況往往是因?yàn)槔习澹髽I(yè)高管，或項(xiàng)目經(jīng)理試圖完成關(guān)鍵任務(wù)——把問(wèn)題和限制條件轉(zhuǎn)化成產(chǎn)品具體功能特性的「基礎(chǔ)假設(shè)」。事實(shí)上，很多人都試圖排除掉「抗解性」。然而，即使在這種情況下，特定特征的概念可能通過(guò)討論和論證而被改變。

8. 通過(guò)使用「定位」來(lái)發(fā)現(xiàn)或創(chuàng)造一個(gè)「基礎(chǔ)假設(shè)」，設(shè)計(jì)師建立了一個(gè)與科學(xué)藝術(shù)有關(guān)的知識(shí)的原則，用來(lái)確定這種知識(shí)在特定環(huán)境下有多大作用，同時(shí)不必馬上將設(shè)計(jì)局限到其中任何一個(gè)學(xué)科中。

9. 實(shí)際上，指向特定產(chǎn)品的「基礎(chǔ)假設(shè)」是一種「相關(guān)性原則」，指導(dǎo)設(shè)計(jì)師去收集所有可用的描述產(chǎn)品最終應(yīng)該是如何被規(guī)劃的相關(guān)知識(shí)。

10. 但是設(shè)計(jì)師的「基礎(chǔ)假設(shè)」或「相關(guān)性原則」是否表明產(chǎn)品本身是一個(gè)確定的主題呢？答案涉及到一個(gè)設(shè)計(jì)思維和生產(chǎn)或制造活動(dòng)之間的區(qū)別，這個(gè)區(qū)別非常關(guān)鍵但往往被模糊掉。一旦產(chǎn)品被構(gòu)思、計(jì)劃和生產(chǎn)，它就可能成為任何一門(mén)科學(xué)藝術(shù)（歷史、經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)、心理學(xué)、社會(huì)學(xué)或人類(lèi)學(xué)等）的研究對(duì)象。它甚至可能成為新的人類(lèi)生產(chǎn)的科學(xué)（我們不妨稱(chēng)它為「人工科學(xué)」）的研究對(duì)象，可以直觀理解各種人造物的性質(zhì)、形態(tài)、和使用方式。但在所有這些研究中，設(shè)計(jì)思維的活動(dòng)很容易被遺忘，或者被直接簡(jiǎn)化為最終產(chǎn)生的產(chǎn)品。設(shè)計(jì)師面臨的問(wèn)題是在知道結(jié)果之前就去設(shè)想和計(jì)劃不存在的東西。而這樣的問(wèn)題往往是在面對(duì)「抗解問(wèn)題」這種存在「不確定性」這樣背景下發(fā)生的。

11. 設(shè)計(jì)的歷史不僅僅是一個(gè)物體的歷史。這是一個(gè)設(shè)計(jì)師們反復(fù)切換研究主題視角的歷史，具體對(duì)象的構(gòu)思、計(jì)劃和生產(chǎn)都是這些觀點(diǎn)的表達(dá)?？梢赃M(jìn)一步說(shuō)，設(shè)計(jì)史的歷史是記錄設(shè)計(jì)史學(xué)家們把什么當(dāng)成主要設(shè)計(jì)主題的歷史。

However, some critics were quick to point out two obvious points of weakness: one, the actual sequence of design thinking and decision making is not a simple linear process; and two, the problems addressed by designers do not, in actual practice, yield to any linear analysis and synthesis yet proposed.

As described in the first published report of Rittel's idea, wicked problems are a "class of social system problems which are ill-formulated, where the information is confusing, where there are many clients and decision makers with conflicting values, and where the ramifications in the whole system are thoroughly confusing. "

Design problems are “indeterminate” and “wicked” because design has no special subject matter of its own apart from what a designer conceives it to be.

The subject matter of design is potentially universal in scope, because design thinking may be applied to any area of human experience.

But in the process of application, the designer must discover or invent a particular subject out of the problems and issues of specific circumstances.

On a general level, a designer forms an idea or a working hypothesis about the nature of products or the nature of the humanmade in the world. This is the designer's view of what is meant, for example, by the “artificial” in relation to the “natural.”

In actual practice, the designer begins with what should be called a quasi-subject matter, tenuously existing within the problems and issues of specific circumstances.

Out of the specific possibilities of a concrete situation, the designer must conceive a design that will lead to this or that particular product.

A quasi-subject matter is not an undetermined subject waiting to be made determinate. It is an indeterminate subject waiting to be made specific and concrete. For example, a client's brief does not present a definition of the subject matter of a particular design application. It presents a problem and a set of issues to be considered in resolving that problem. In situations where a brief specifies in great detail the particular features of the product to be planned, it otten does so because an owner, corporate executive, or manager has attempted to perform the critical task of transforming problems and issues into a working hypothesis about the particular features of the product to be designed.

Placements are the tools by which a designer intuitively or deliberately shapes a design situation, identifying the views of all participants, the issues which concern them, and the invention that will serve as a working hypothes is for exploration and development. This helps to explain how design functions as an integrative discipline. By using placements to discover or invent a working hypothesis, the designer establishes a principle of relevance for knowledge from the arts and sciences, determining how such knowledge may be useful to design thinking in a particular circumstance without immediately reducing design to one or another of these disciplines. In effect, the working hypothesis that will lead to a particular product is the principle of relevance, guiding the efforts of designers to gather all available knowledge bearing on how a product is finally planned.

In short, Simon appears to have conflated two sciences of the artificial : an inventive science of design thinking which has no subject matter aside from what the designer conceives it to be, and a science of existing humanmade products whose nature Simon happens to believe is a manipulation of material and behavioral laws of nature.

One could gofurther and say that the history of design history is a record of the design historians' views regarding what they conceive to be the subject matter of design.

設(shè)計(jì)與技術(shù)

1. 設(shè)計(jì)也有工學(xué)，它體現(xiàn)在每一個(gè)新產(chǎn)品的計(jì)劃與規(guī)劃上。這種計(jì)劃反映了設(shè)計(jì)師的思考以及他們努力以新的方式去整合知識(shí)來(lái)適應(yīng)特定的情況和需要。從這個(gè)意義上說(shuō)，設(shè)計(jì)是一種新興的實(shí)踐推理和論證的新學(xué)科，由設(shè)計(jì)師們引導(dǎo)著二十世紀(jì)的幾個(gè)主要設(shè)計(jì)課題——傳達(dá)、構(gòu)造、戰(zhàn)略規(guī)劃、系統(tǒng)整合。設(shè)計(jì)作為思考和論證的力量在于克服僅僅是語(yǔ)言或符號(hào)的觀念上的局限性。在當(dāng)代文化中詞和物、理論與實(shí)踐的分離仍然是造成混亂的根源。設(shè)計(jì)思維中的主題朝著符號(hào)、實(shí)物、行為和思想的具體相互作用和相互聯(lián)系的方向發(fā)展。每個(gè)設(shè)計(jì)師的草圖、工程圖、流程圖、圖像、三維模型或其他產(chǎn)品提案就是這種論點(diǎn)的一個(gè)例子。

2. 博雅教育能夠幫助人們意識(shí)到中心論點(diǎn)是如何貫穿于設(shè)計(jì)行業(yè)使用的許多技術(shù)方法的。不同的模式可能互相補(bǔ)充地論證在人類(lèi)經(jīng)驗(yàn)中到底什么場(chǎng)景和規(guī)劃才是“有用” 。作為一種技術(shù)文化的學(xué)科，設(shè)計(jì)指向了一種新的關(guān)于產(chǎn)品現(xiàn)象的看法。這種現(xiàn)象必須對(duì)人類(lèi)經(jīng)驗(yàn)中人造物的本質(zhì)進(jìn)行更深入、更全面的論證。這一論點(diǎn)綜合了三條線索：設(shè)計(jì)師和制造商關(guān)于他們產(chǎn)品的想法；產(chǎn)品的內(nèi)部運(yùn)作邏輯；以及人們?nèi)ビ卯a(chǎn)品的欲望和能力（在使用中會(huì)呈現(xiàn)出個(gè)人與社會(huì)價(jià)值）。有效的設(shè)計(jì)取決于設(shè)計(jì)師整合所有三條線索的能力。但這不是作為一個(gè)簡(jiǎn)單的數(shù)學(xué)總量相加的孤立因素，也不能作為可以分開(kāi)研究的獨(dú)立對(duì)象，在產(chǎn)品開(kāi)發(fā)過(guò)程中后期加入。

The power of design as deliberation and argument lies in overcoming the limitations of mere verbal or symbolic argument ——the separation of words and things, or theory and practice that remains a source of disruption and confusion in contemporary culture.

Differences of modality may be complementary ways of arguing-reciprocal expressions of what conditions and shapes the “useful” in human experience. As a liberal art of technological culture, design points toward a new attitude about the appearance of products. appearance must carry a deeper, integrative argument about the nature of the artificial in human experience.

This argument is a synthesis of three lines of reasoning: the ideas of designers and manufacturers about their products; the internal operational logic of products; and the desire and ability of human beings to use products in everyday life in ways that reflect personal and social values.

抗解問(wèn)題十大原則

1. There is no definite formulation of a wicked problem. 抗解問(wèn)題并無(wú)明確的定義
   "The information needed to understand the problem depends upon one's idea for solving it. This is to say: in order to describe a wicked problem in sufficient detail, one has to develop an exhaustive inventory for all the conceivable solutions ahead of time." [This seemingly incredible criterion is in fact treatable. See below.]

2. Wicked problems have no stopping rules. 抗解問(wèn)題無(wú)法被徹底完全解決
   In solving a tame problem, "… the problem-solver knows when he has done his job. There are criteria that tell when the solution or a solution has been found". With wicked problems you never come to a "final", "complete" or "fully correct" solution - since you have no objective criteria for such. The problem is continually evolving and mutating. You stop when you run out of resources, when a result is subjectively deemed "good enough" or when we feel "we've done what we can…"

3. Solutions to wicked problems are not true-or-false, but better or worse.沒(méi)有對(duì)或錯(cuò)的解決方案，只有好與壞的解決方案。
   The criteria for judging the validity of a "solution" to a wicked problem are strongly stakeholder dependent. However, the judgments of different stakeholders …"are likely to differ widely to accord with their group or personal interests, their special value-sets, and their ideological predilections." Different stakeholders see different "solutions" as simply better or worse.

4. There is no immediate and no ultimate test of a solution to a wicked problem. 解決抗解問(wèn)題時(shí)，沒(méi)有詳盡的執(zhí)行清單
   "… any solution, after being implemented, will generate waves of consequences over an extended - virtually an unbounded - period of time. Moreover, the next day's consequences of the solution may yield utterly undesirable repercussions which outweigh the intended advantages or the advantages accomplished hitherto."

5. Every solution to a wicked problem is a "one-shot operation"; because there is no opportunity to learn by trial-and-error, every attempt counts significantly. 解決抗解問(wèn)題的機(jī)會(huì)只有一次，沒(méi)有試錯(cuò)空間
   "… every implemented solution is consequential. It leaves "traces" that cannot be undone … And every attempt to reverse a decision or correct for the undesired consequences poses yet another set of wicked problems … ."

6. Wicked problems do not have an enumerable (or an exhaustively describable) set of potential solutions, nor is there a well-described set of permissible operations that may be incorporated into the plan. 「抗解問(wèn)題」的框架與解決方案都沒(méi)有一個(gè)明確的測(cè)試來(lái)判斷。
   "There are no criteria which enable one to prove that all the solutions to a wicked problem have been identified and considered. It may happen that no solution is found, owing to logical inconsistencies in the 'picture' of the problem."

7. Every wicked problem is essentially unique. 每個(gè)抗解問(wèn)題都是獨(dú)一無(wú)二的
   "There are no classes of wicked problems in the sense that the principles of solution can be developed to fit all members of that class." …Also, …"Part of the art of dealing with wicked problems is the art of not knowing too early which type of solution to apply." [Note: this is very important point. See below.]

8. Every wicked problem can be considered to be a symptom of another [wicked] problem. 每一個(gè)「抗解問(wèn)題」都是另一個(gè)“更高層次”問(wèn)題的征兆（一個(gè)局部）。
   Also, many internal aspects of a wicked problem can be considered to be symptoms of other internal aspects of the same problem. A good deal of mutual and circular causality is involved, and the problem has many causal levels to consider. Complex judgements are required in order to determine an appropriate level of abstraction needed to define the problem.

9. The causes of a wicked problem can be explained in numerous ways. The choice of explanation determines the nature of the problem's resolution. 抗解問(wèn)題總是有多個(gè)可能的解釋?zhuān)忉寗t完全取決于設(shè)計(jì)師的世界觀與人生觀。
   "There is no rule or procedure to determine the 'correct' explanation or combination of [explanations for a wicked problem]. The reason is that in dealing with wicked problems there are several more ways of refuting a hypothesis than there are permissible in the [e.g. physical] sciences."

10. [With wicked problems,] the planner has no right to be wrong. 「抗解問(wèn)題」解決者沒(méi)有錯(cuò)誤的權(quán)利——他們是對(duì)自己的行為完全負(fù)責(zé)的。
    In "hard" science, the researcher is allowed to make hypotheses that are later refuted. Indeed, it is just such hypothesis generation that is a primary motive force behind scientific development (Ritchey, 1991). Thus one is not penalised for making hypothesis that turn out to be wrong. "In the world of … wicked problems no such immunity is tolerated. Here the aim is not to find the truth, but to improve some characteristic of the world where people live. Planners are liable for the consequences of the actions they generate …"