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【簡(jiǎn)譯】奈良時(shí)代（Nara Period）

2022-12-19 19:38 作者:神尾智代 0人讀過 | 我要投稿

上一時(shí)代

The Nara Period (Nara Jidai) of ancient Japan (710-794 CE), so called because for most of that time the capital was located at Nara, then known as Heijokyo, was a short period of transition prior to the significant Heian Period. Despite the period's brevity it still managed to produce arguably the most famous works of Japanese literature ever written and some of the most important temples still in use today including at Todaiji, the largest wooden building in the world at that time, which still houses the largest bronze statue of Buddha ever made.

? ? ? ? ? 公元710-794年的古代日本，之所以被稱為奈良時(shí)代，是因?yàn)槠浯蟛糠謺r(shí)間里，首都位于奈良，而奈良在當(dāng)時(shí)被人們稱作“平城”。這一時(shí)期是平安時(shí)代之前一個(gè)短暫的過渡。盡管奈良時(shí)期很短暫，但它仍然出現(xiàn)了可以說是有史以來最著名的日本文學(xué)作品和一些至今仍在使用的重要的寺廟，如東大寺，這座寺廟在當(dāng)時(shí)是世界上最大的木制建筑群之一，那里有世界上最大的毗盧遮那（大日如來）佛銅像。

公元 1 年的絲綢之路網(wǎng)絡(luò)以及長(zhǎng)安和奈良之間的路徑

歷史概述

Nara, or more correctly Heijokyo, as it was known then, was made the capital of Japan from 710 to 784 CE, after which time it was relocated to Nagaokakyo. The previous capital was Fujiwara-kyo, but Nara had the advantage of being more centrally placed, located 30 kilometres south of Kyoto. Later historians gave the capital's name to the period 710 to 794 CE even if for the last decade it was no longer the most important Japanese city. The Nara Period followed on from the Kofun Period (c. 250-538 CE) and Asuka Period (538-710 CE), together sometimes referred to as the Yamato Period. Japan had increased its diplomatic relations with its powerful neighbours China and Korea, accepted the Buddhist religion, and absorbed some useful cultural advancements. This process continued in the Nara Period.

? ? ? ? ? 奈良，或者更正確地說是平城京，在公元710年至784年期間被定為日本的首都，此后遷至長(zhǎng)岡京。之前的首都是藤原京，但奈良的優(yōu)勢(shì)在于它位于京都以南30公里處，位置更為集中。后來的歷史學(xué)家將首都的名字命名為“奈良”——即使在最后十年里它不再是日本最重要的城市。奈良時(shí)代緊隨古墳時(shí)代（約公元250-538年）和飛鳥時(shí)代（公元538-710年）之后，有時(shí)也被稱為大和時(shí)代。這一時(shí)期，日本加強(qiáng)了與強(qiáng)大鄰國(guó)中國(guó)和朝鮮的外交關(guān)系，接受了佛教，并吸收了一些有益的文化進(jìn)步成果。這個(gè)過程在奈良時(shí)期繼續(xù)進(jìn)行。

Nara was built on the Chinese model of Chang-an, the Tang capital and so had a regular and well-defined grid layout, two symmetrical halves, and buildings familiar to Chinese architecture. A university dedicated to the Confucian tradition was established, a sprawling royal palace was built and the state bureaucracy was expanded to some 7,000 civil servants. The total population of Nara may have been as high as 200,000 by the end of the period.

? ? ? ? ? 奈良是按照中國(guó)的唐朝首都長(zhǎng)安的模式建造的，因此有一個(gè)規(guī)則和明確的網(wǎng)格布局，兩個(gè)對(duì)稱的布局，以及中國(guó)式建筑。還建立了一所致力于儒家傳統(tǒng)的大學(xué)，以及建造了一座龐大的王宮，國(guó)家官僚機(jī)構(gòu)擴(kuò)大到約7000名公務(wù)員。到這一時(shí)期結(jié)束時(shí)，奈良的總?cè)丝诳赡芤迅哌_(dá)20萬。

Control of the central government over the provinces was increased by a heightened military presence throughout the islands of Japan. This did not prevent a major rebellion in 740 CE led by the Fujiwara exile Hirotsugu and supported by the Hayato minority based in southern Kyushu who resented the Yamato clan's dominance of the government and its attempts to 'civilise' under-developed regions. Emperor Shomu (r. 724-749 CE) raised an army of 17,000 men, quashed the rebel army inside of two months and executed Hirotsugu.

? ? ? ? ? 中央政府通過提升在日本各島的軍事存在，加強(qiáng)對(duì)各省的控制。這并沒有阻止公元740年由流亡者藤原弘次領(lǐng)導(dǎo)的重大叛亂，該叛亂得到了駐扎在九州南部的Hayato少數(shù)民族（在日語中是“隼人”的意思，是奈良時(shí)代生活在九州南部薩摩和大隅地區(qū)的古代日本人）的支持，他們對(duì)大和氏族在政府中的主導(dǎo)地位及其對(duì)欠發(fā)達(dá)地區(qū)的“文明”嘗試感到不滿。圣武天皇（公元724-749年）組建了一支17000人的軍隊(duì)，在兩個(gè)月內(nèi)平定了叛軍，并處決了藤原弘次。

For the ordinary populace, especially those in rural areas (90%), poverty, or just living above it, continued to be the norm. Agriculture still depended on primitive tools, not enough land was prepared for crops, and irrigation techniques were insufficient to prevent frequent crop failures and outbreaks of famine. In 743 CE a law attempted to encourage land clearance for agriculture by guaranteeing farmers the right to pass on their cleared land to their descendants, but most preferred the greater security of working for landed aristocrats.

? ? ? ? ? 對(duì)于普通民眾，特別是農(nóng)村地區(qū)的民眾（90%）來說，貧困，或者生活水平勉強(qiáng)在貧困之上，仍然是常態(tài)。農(nóng)業(yè)仍然依賴原始的工具，人們沒有足夠的土地用于種植，灌溉技術(shù)也不足以防止頻繁的作物歉收和饑荒的爆發(fā)。公元743年，國(guó)家頒布了一項(xiàng)法律，試圖通過保證農(nóng)民有權(quán)將他們開墾的土地傳給他們的后代來鼓勵(lì)農(nóng)業(yè)用地的擴(kuò)張，但大多數(shù)人更喜歡為土地貴族工作，因?yàn)檫@在當(dāng)時(shí)具有一定的保障性。

To make matters worse for Japan's already strained rural communities, there were smallpox epidemics in 735 and 737 CE which historians calculate reduced the county's population by 25-35%. The lot of the Japanese peasant was not helped by excessive taxation, largely designed to fund Emperor Shomu's temple building projects (see below) in the first half of the 8th century CE in which he was aided by the Buddhist priest Gyogi. The emperor was a keen convert to Buddhism, especially following the various disasters during his reign, and he had the bright idea to build a temple in every province in the hope this might improve the country's fortunes. In contrast to the peasantry, an ever-increasing number of religious sites and aristocrats were given tax immunity, and the government, happily spending away on temples, struggled to balance its books throughout the period. The court was also beset by internal conflicts for favours and positions amongst the aristocracy which resulted in Emperor Kammu (r. 781-806 CE) moving the capital to Heiankyo in 794 CE. This was the beginning of the Heian Period which would last into the 12th century CE.

? ? ? ? ? 對(duì)日本已經(jīng)很緊張的農(nóng)村社區(qū)來說，更糟糕的是，在公元735年和737年發(fā)生了天花流行病，據(jù)歷史學(xué)家計(jì)算，國(guó)家人口減少了25-35%。日本農(nóng)民的命運(yùn)并沒有因?yàn)檫^度的稅收而得到幫助，這些稅收主要是為了資助圣武天皇在公元8世紀(jì)上半葉的寺廟建設(shè)項(xiàng)目（見下文），在這些項(xiàng)目中，他得到了佛教僧侶行基（ぎょうき／ぎょうぎ）的幫助?；实蹮嶂杂陴б婪鸾蹋貏e是在他統(tǒng)治期間發(fā)生各種災(zāi)難之后，他有一個(gè)聰明的想法，在每個(gè)省都建一座寺廟，希望這能改善國(guó)家的命運(yùn)。與農(nóng)民相比，越來越多的宗教場(chǎng)所和貴族獲得了免稅權(quán)，政府很樂意在寺廟上花錢，卻在整個(gè)時(shí)期努力平衡其賬目。宮廷也被貴族之間的內(nèi)部沖突所困擾，這導(dǎo)致了桓武天皇（公元781-806年）在公元794年將首都遷往平安京。這是平安時(shí)代的開端，并持續(xù)到公元12世紀(jì)。

The period is notable for having three reigning empresses: Gemmei (r. 707-715 CE), Gensho (r. 715-724 CE), and Koken in two spells: 749-758 CE and, then with the title Shotoku, 764-770 CE. Shotoku had a notorious affair with a Buddhist priest called Dokyo, and she even named him as her successor, but the court rejected this choice and Dokyo was exiled. It would be another 800 years before a woman sat on the Japanese imperial throne again. Their reigns are perhaps indicative of a slightly better lot for women in wider society, certainly in comparison to contemporary China. In Nara Japan, for example, women could own land.

? ? ? ? ? 奈良時(shí)代以三位皇后而聞名。Gemmei（元明天皇，是奈良時(shí)代的第一位天皇。原名阿閇皇女，公元707-715年在位）、Gensho（元正天皇，日本第44代天皇，也是日本歷史上第五位女天皇，諱冰高皇女，公元715-724年在位）和Koken（孝謙天皇，日本第46代和第48代天皇，也是一位女天皇，諱阿倍內(nèi)親王），Koken分兩次在位：公元749-758年和公元764-770年，后來又改稱Shotoku。有謠言稱，孝謙天皇與一個(gè)叫Dokyo（道鏡）的佛教徒有一段臭名昭著的戀情，她甚至指定道鏡為她的繼承人，但朝廷拒絕了這一選擇，道鏡也被流放了。又過了800年，才有一位女性再次坐在日本皇室的寶座上。她們的統(tǒng)治也許表明，與當(dāng)代中國(guó)相比，婦女在更廣泛的社會(huì)中的命運(yùn)稍微好一些。例如，在奈良時(shí)代，婦女可以擁有土地。

奈良文學(xué)

The Nara Period would see a flourishing particularly in the field of literature. The Kojiki ('Record of Ancient Things') was compiled in 712 CE by the court scholar Ono Yasumaro, who drew on earlier sources, mostly genealogies of powerful clans. Then the Nihon Shoki ('Chronicle of Japan' and also known as the Nihongi), written by a committee of court scholars, came in 720 CE which sought to redress the bias many clans thought the earlier work had given to the Yamato clan. These works, then, describe the 'Age of the Gods' when the world was created and they ruled before withdrawing to leave humanity to rule itself. They also gave the imperial line a direct descent from the gods - the original purpose of their composition.

? ? ? ? ? 奈良時(shí)期，尤其是在文學(xué)領(lǐng)域，出現(xiàn)了蓬勃發(fā)展的局面?！豆攀掠洝罚↘ojiki）是由宮廷學(xué)者太安萬侶于公元712年編纂的，他借鑒了早期的資料，主要是強(qiáng)大家族的家譜。由宮廷學(xué)者委員會(huì)撰寫的《日本書紀(jì)》（Nihon Shoki）于公元720年問世，它試圖糾正許多宗族認(rèn)為早期作品對(duì)大和宗族的偏見。這些作品描述了“神的時(shí)代”，當(dāng)時(shí)世界被神創(chuàng)造出來，他們?cè)谕顺鲎屓祟愖约航y(tǒng)治之前進(jìn)行了統(tǒng)治。神還賦予了皇室血統(tǒng)以直接來自神靈的血統(tǒng)——這是他們創(chuàng)世的最初目的。

Other important works included the Kaifuso poem anthology of 751 CE and the Manyoshu or 'Collection of 10,000 Leaves'. Written c. 760 CE, it is another anthology of 4,500 poems covering all manner of topics. Finally, a series of local chronicles, or Fudoki, were commissioned in 713 CE to record local kami (spirits) and associated legends in the various provinces.

? ? ? ? ? 其他重要作品包括公元751年編纂完成的《懷風(fēng)藻》，還有《萬葉集》?！度f葉集》大約寫于公元760年（于八世紀(jì)后半編輯完成），是一本由4500首詩組成的文集，涉及各種主題。一系列地方編年史，或稱《古風(fēng)土記》，在公元713年完集，此書集主要記錄各省的地方神靈和相關(guān)傳說。

奈良時(shí)代服飾的現(xiàn)代再現(xiàn)。這一時(shí)期的許多衣物都留在了正倉院

奈良寺廟

東大寺

Another productive area during the period was religious architecture. The Buddhist temple of Todaiji was founded near Nara in 752 CE, east of the imperial palace, hence its name 'Great Eastern Temple'. The site boasted the largest wooden building in the world at that time. The Great Buddha Hall or Daibutsuden had to be big because it contained a 15-metre (49 ft) high bronze statue of the seated Buddha, the largest such statue in the world and weighing in at around 500 tons. The Todaiji was partially destroyed in a fire during the Genpei War (1180-1185 CE) but was restored to its former glory, albeit on a slightly smaller scale but still housing the huge and partially restored Buddha statue and still an impressive 48 metres (157 ft) high and 57 metres (187 ft) long.

? ? ? ? ? ?奈良時(shí)期富有成效的領(lǐng)域之一是宗教建筑。東大寺佛教寺院群于公元752年在奈良附近建成，位于皇宮的東面，因此被稱為“東大寺”。該地?fù)碛挟?dāng)時(shí)世界上最大的木制建筑群之一。大佛殿很大，因?yàn)槔锩嬗幸蛔?5米（49英尺）高的銅質(zhì)坐佛像，是世界上最大的此類雕像，重約500噸。東大寺在源平合戰(zhàn)（史稱「治承·壽永之亂」，公元1180-1185年）期間部分毀于一場(chǎng)大火，但后來又恢復(fù)了昔日的輝煌，盡管規(guī)模稍小，但仍有巨大的、部分修復(fù)的大佛殿，大佛殿高49米（161英尺，這里尺寸參考了維基的數(shù)據(jù)，https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C5%8Ddai-ji#cite_ref-15），長(zhǎng)57米（187英尺），令人印象深刻。

Other buildings at Todaiji include the Nandaimon (Great South Gate), Shoro (Belfry), Nigatsudo (Second Month Hall), Hokke-do (Third Month Hall), Shoso-in (Treasury) and two 100-metre (328 ft) tall pagodas, the latter pair were unfortunately destroyed by an earthquake and never rebuilt. A large bronze octagonal lantern still standing between the Daibutsuden and Chumon Gate dates to the founding of the temple. The Todaiji is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

? ? ? ? ? 東大寺的其他建筑包括南大門（Nandaimon）、鐘樓（Shoro）、二月堂（Nigatsudo）、法華堂（Hoke-do）、正倉院（Shoso-in）和兩座100米（328英尺）高的佛塔，后一對(duì)佛塔不幸被地震摧毀，從未重建。在大佛殿和中門之間，有一個(gè)大型的青銅八角燈籠，可以追溯到該寺的創(chuàng)立時(shí)期。東大寺被聯(lián)合國(guó)教科文組織列為世界文化遺產(chǎn)。

春日大社

Another important Nara Period temple is the Kasuga Taisha, a Shinto shrine set in a forest near Nara, which was officially founded in 768 CE, although historians prefer a date of 710 CE. It was established by the powerful Fujiwara clan after, as the legend goes, a deity appeared at the site riding a deer, which also explains why deer are left to roam freely at the temple even today. The site includes a shrine dedicated to the founding ancestor of the Fujiwara. The pathway to the shrine is lined with stone lanterns donated by worshippers over the centuries. Many of these 2,000 lanterns are decorated with an image of a deer. Another 1,000 bronze lanterns hang around the shrines and gates at the site. All the lanterns at Kasuga are lit in a spectacular ceremony held each February and August. The Kasuga is also a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

? ? ? ? ? 另一個(gè)奈良時(shí)期重要的寺廟是春日大社，這是一座位于奈良附近森林中的神道圣地，正式建立于公元768年，盡管歷史學(xué)家更傾向于公元710年這一日期。它是由強(qiáng)大的藤原氏建立的，因?yàn)閭髡f中，一位神靈騎著一只鹿出現(xiàn)在該地，這也解釋了為什么即使在今天，鹿仍然可以在寺廟里自由漫步。該遺址包括一個(gè)供奉藤原家族創(chuàng)始祖先的神龕。通往神社的道路兩旁擺放著幾個(gè)世紀(jì)以來崇拜者捐贈(zèng)的石燈籠。這2,000個(gè)燈籠中的許多都裝飾有鹿的形象。另有1,000個(gè)銅燈籠掛在神社和門的周圍。在每年2月和8月舉行的壯觀儀式上，春日的所有燈籠都被點(diǎn)亮。春日大社也被聯(lián)合國(guó)教科文組織列為世界文化遺產(chǎn)。