企業(yè)死亡率不斷上升為所有公司帶來威脅，其背后的主因是商業(yè)環(huán)境變得越來越復(fù)雜多變，這一狀況不會在可預(yù)見的未來發(fā)生變化。因此，我們需要徹底轉(zhuǎn)變管理思維。過去，企業(yè)領(lǐng)導(dǎo)者會問:"我們?nèi)绾卧诟偁幹袆俪?？”如今他們必須回答的問題是：“我們?nèi)绾位畹酶茫俊? ??

Companies operate in an increasingly?complex world:?Business environments are more diverse, dynamic, and interconnected than ever—and far less predictable.?

企業(yè)運(yùn)營環(huán)境正變得愈加復(fù)雜。商業(yè)環(huán)境的多樣化、變化速度和相互聯(lián)接程度前所未有，可預(yù)測性也大大降低。

We believe that companies are dying younger because they are failing to adapt to the growing complexity of their environment. Many misread the environment, select the wrong approach to strategy, or fail to support a viable approach with the right behaviors and capabilities.

很多企業(yè)早夭的原因也正是它們無法適應(yīng)周邊環(huán)境與日俱增的復(fù)雜性。不少公司誤讀了環(huán)境，選擇了錯(cuò)誤的戰(zhàn)略制定方式，或者無法用正確的行為方式和能力來支持其戰(zhàn)略。

How, then, can companies flourish and persist? Our research at the intersection of business strategy, biology, and complex systems focuses on what makes such systems—from tropical forests to stock markets to companies themselves—robust.?

那么如今企業(yè)該如何保證生存，獲得發(fā)展？我們的研究融合了企業(yè)戰(zhàn)略、生物系統(tǒng)和復(fù)雜系統(tǒng)的知識，聚焦于如何讓復(fù)雜系統(tǒng)——從熱帶雨林到股票市場，再到公司本身——更加強(qiáng)健。

Some business thinkers have argued that companies are?like?biological species and have tried to extract business lessons from biology, with uneven success. We stress that companies are?identical to?biological species in an important respect: Both are what’s known as complex adaptive systems.

已經(jīng)有一些商業(yè)思想家提出，企業(yè)就像一個(gè)個(gè)生物物種，他們試圖從生物學(xué)中提煉出商業(yè)智慧，并獲得了不同程度的成功。我們認(rèn)為，企業(yè)在一個(gè)重要的方面與生物物種驚人相似：它們都是復(fù)雜自適應(yīng)系統(tǒng)（complex adaptive systems）。

Complex adaptive systems are often nested in broader systems. A population is a CAS nested in a natural ecosystem, which itself is nested in the broader biological environment. A company is a CAS nested in a business ecosystem, which is nested in the broad societal environment.?

復(fù)雜自適應(yīng)系統(tǒng)通常嵌入更廣闊的系統(tǒng)內(nèi)。某種生物的整個(gè)種群是一個(gè)復(fù)雜自適應(yīng)系統(tǒng)，這個(gè)系統(tǒng)也嵌入一個(gè)更廣闊的生態(tài)系統(tǒng)中，而生態(tài)系統(tǒng)又嵌入在更廣闊的生物環(huán)境中。一家公司是一個(gè)復(fù)雜自適應(yīng)系統(tǒng)，它又嵌入更廣闊的商業(yè)生態(tài)系統(tǒng)中，該系統(tǒng)又嵌入更廣闊的社會環(huán)境中。

We have identified six principles that can help make complex adaptive systems in business robust. A few caveats: Each principle confers a cost and has an optimal level of application; leaders must carefully calibrate how aggressively to implement each one.

我們提出了6項(xiàng)原則，能幫助企業(yè)這樣的復(fù)雜自適應(yīng)系統(tǒng)更加強(qiáng)健。需要注意的是，每一個(gè)原則的應(yīng)用都需要把握合理的“度”，也都會產(chǎn)生成本。領(lǐng)導(dǎo)者必須仔細(xì)評估應(yīng)以何種力度推行每個(gè)原則。

Furthermore, the principles are in tension with one another; emphasizing one may require deemphasizing another. Leaders must consider how to balance the principles collectively rather than treat the application of each as a unitary goal.

更重要的是，每個(gè)原則之間都存在著張力，加強(qiáng)某個(gè)原則的應(yīng)用，可能會削弱另一原則。領(lǐng)導(dǎo)者必須思考，如何平衡綜合應(yīng)用這些原則，而非將每個(gè)原則的應(yīng)用視為單一的目標(biāo)。

For clarity we will illustrate the principles one at a time, but robust systems typically exhibit many or all of their characteristics simultaneously.

為方便起見，我們將逐一介紹這6大原則，然而強(qiáng)健的系統(tǒng)應(yīng)同時(shí)擁有多個(gè)甚至所有原則。

Maintain Heterogeneity

01.保持異質(zhì)性

Variety in the units of a CAS allows the system to adapt to a changing environment. Biologically, such heterogeneity explains why many diseases persist despite efforts to eradicate them.

復(fù)雜自適應(yīng)系統(tǒng)內(nèi)部參與者的多樣性，可以讓系統(tǒng)適應(yīng)不斷變化的環(huán)境。從更廣泛的角度講，多樣化是適應(yīng)性進(jìn)化的前提。

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In a business CAS leaders must ensure that the company is sufficiently diverse along three dimensions: people, ideas, and endeavors. This may come at the cost of short-term efficiency, but it is essential to robustness. One obvious starting point is to hire people with varied personality types, educational backgrounds, and working styles. But even amid such diversity, employees are typically reluctant to challenge the dominant business logic, especially if the firm has been successful. An explicit cultural shift and active managerial support may be needed to encourage people to risk failure and create new ideas.

在商業(yè)環(huán)境中，領(lǐng)導(dǎo)者必須保證公司在3個(gè)層面上保持足夠的多樣性：人才、創(chuàng)新和活動(dòng)。培植多樣性可能會導(dǎo)致短期效率的降低，但它對系統(tǒng)的強(qiáng)健必不可少。要促進(jìn)多樣性，一個(gè)比較簡便的方法是雇用不同個(gè)性、教育水平、背景和工作風(fēng)格的員工。然而即便企業(yè)的員工多樣性很高，員工有時(shí)也不愿去挑戰(zhàn)現(xiàn)有的主流商業(yè)邏輯，尤其在那些成功的企業(yè)中。明確的文化轉(zhuǎn)型和主動(dòng)的管理層支持，甚至鼓勵(lì)他們犯錯(cuò)，可以幫助員工進(jìn)行創(chuàng)新。

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Indeed, the absence of mistakes is a clear indication of missed opportunities and ultimately of enterprise fragility. Many Silicon Valley firms celebrate productive, or “l(fā)earning,” failures (think of the mantras “Fail fast” and “Fail forward”), which contribute to their success.

實(shí)際上，沒有錯(cuò)誤意味著企業(yè)失去了很多機(jī)遇，最終導(dǎo)致企業(yè)的脆弱性提高。很多硅谷的企業(yè)都?xì)g迎有意義的、“學(xué)習(xí)性”的失敗，它們認(rèn)為成功離不開這些失敗的貢獻(xiàn)。

Fujifilm exemplifies robustness through strategic heterogeneity. Its industry faced a crisis in the late 1990s, when digital photography reached the consumer market and quickly eroded demand for photography film. Fujifilm responded with a series of radical reforms to diversify its business—partnering with new companies, investing heavily in R&D, and acquiring 40 firms. What distinguished Fujifilm’s approach from that of the other industry giant, Kodak, was that the firm explored not only obvious adjacencies but also entirely new business areas, such as pharmaceuticals and cosmetics, where it could exploit its existing capabilities in chemistry and materials.

富士膠片展示了如何通過戰(zhàn)略性地保持異質(zhì)性讓公司變得更強(qiáng)健。20世紀(jì)90年代末，數(shù)字成像技術(shù)進(jìn)入消費(fèi)市場，并迅速吞噬成像膠片的市場需求，整個(gè)膠片行業(yè)也隨之陷入危機(jī)。與膠片業(yè)另一位巨人柯達(dá)的做法不同，富士不僅探索了密切相關(guān)行業(yè)的新業(yè)務(wù)，也進(jìn)入了全新的業(yè)務(wù)領(lǐng)域，例如制藥和化妝品。

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It also did so to a sufficient degree. The exploratory efforts and resulting diverse offerings paid off. While the camera film market peaked in 2000 and shrank by 90% over the following 10 years, Fujifilm grew; in contrast, Kodak declared bankruptcy in 2012.

這些探索并非淺嘗輒止，而是達(dá)到了足夠深度。公司的多樣化探索收到了回報(bào)：2000年膠片市場達(dá)到頂峰，在之后的10年，其規(guī)模縮水了90%。然而在此期間，富士的業(yè)績不降反升。反觀老對手柯達(dá)則在2012年宣布破產(chǎn)。

Sustain Modularity

02.保持模塊化

A modular CAS consists of loosely connected components. Highly modular systems impede the spread of shocks from one component to the next, making the overall system more robust.

模塊化復(fù)雜的自適應(yīng)系統(tǒng)的各組成部分是松散連接的。高模塊化的系統(tǒng)可以防止風(fēng)險(xiǎn)在各個(gè)組成部分間傳播，使整個(gè)系統(tǒng)更加強(qiáng)健。

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In a business context modularity always brings trade-offs: Insulating against shocks means forgoing some benefits of greater connectivity. Within a company, tight connections across regions or businesses can enhance information flows, innovation, and agility, but they tend to make the company vulnerable to severe adverse events. In the broader ecosystem, integration with other business stakeholders can bolster effectiveness in similar ways, but interdependence also amplifies risk. Because the benefits of risk mitigation are subtle and latent, whereas efficiency gains are immediate, managers often overemphasize the latter.

在商業(yè)環(huán)境中，模塊化也需要取舍。完全隔絕外界風(fēng)險(xiǎn)，意味著放棄高度聯(lián)通帶來的益處。在一家公司中，不同業(yè)務(wù)或區(qū)域之間的緊密聯(lián)接可促進(jìn)信息流動(dòng)、創(chuàng)新和企業(yè)靈活性；但它也會讓公司在面對嚴(yán)重風(fēng)險(xiǎn)時(shí)更脆弱。在更廣闊的生態(tài)系統(tǒng)中，與其他利益相關(guān)方緊密聯(lián)接也會帶來類似的效率提升，當(dāng)然相互依存也會產(chǎn)生風(fēng)險(xiǎn)。由于風(fēng)險(xiǎn)的降低微妙且不易見，而效率的提升則立竿見影，因此管理者常常過于強(qiáng)調(diào)后者的益處。

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Despite the trade-offs, modularity is a defining feature of robust systems. A bias against it for the sake of short-term gains carries long-term risks.

拋開這些取舍，模塊化仍對系統(tǒng)的魯棒性（Robustness，是指控制系統(tǒng)在一定的參數(shù)攝動(dòng)下，維持其它某些性能的特性）非常重要。如果公司為了短期利益而對其忽視，那么長期風(fēng)險(xiǎn)可能隨之而來。

Preserve Redundancy

03.保留冗余?

In systems with redundancy, multiple components play overlapping roles. When one fails, another can fulfill the same function. Redundancy is particularly important in highly dynamic environments, in which adverse shocks are frequent.

在冗余的系統(tǒng)中，多個(gè)部分扮演同樣的角色。當(dāng)其中一個(gè)失效時(shí)，其他部分可以完成同樣的功能。在快速變化的環(huán)境中，風(fēng)險(xiǎn)事件發(fā)生的頻率更高，冗余就變得尤為重要。

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Consider how the human immune system leverages redundancy to create robustness against disease. We have multiple lines of defense against pathogens, including physical barriers (the skin and mucous membranes), the innate immune system (white blood cells), and the adaptive immune system (antibodies), each of which consists of multiple cellular and molecular defense mechanisms. In healthy people these redundant mechanisms act in concert, so when one fails, others prevent infection.

想象一下人類的免疫系統(tǒng)如何利用冗余來對抗疾病。人體有多條防線來阻擋病原體，其中包括物理屏障（皮膚和粘膜）、內(nèi)部免疫系統(tǒng)（白血球）以及適應(yīng)性免疫系統(tǒng)（抗體）。每一條防線又具有多個(gè)細(xì)胞和分子防御機(jī)制。在健康的人體中，這些冗余機(jī)制相互配合，當(dāng)其中一條防線失效時(shí)，其他機(jī)制會阻擋病原體的感染。

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Businesses often impugn redundancy, treating it as the antithesis of leanness and efficiency. This has led to some disastrous outcomes. In the 1990s, when Ericsson was one of the world’s leading mobile-phone manufacturers, it adopted a single-source procurement strategy for key components. In 2000 a fire incapacitated a Philips microchip plant, and Ericsson was unable to switch rapidly to another supplier. It lost months of production and recorded a $1.7 billion loss in its mobile-phone division that year, which resulted in the division’s merger with Sony.

然而企業(yè)往往對冗余避之不及，它們將其視為精益和效率的大敵。這導(dǎo)致了一些災(zāi)難性的后果。20世紀(jì)90年代，愛立信是全球領(lǐng)先的手機(jī)制造商之一。它采用單一貨源的策略采購手機(jī)的關(guān)鍵部件。2000年，一場大火讓飛利浦的微型芯片制造廠陷入癱瘓。愛立信無法短時(shí)間內(nèi)找到可以替代的供應(yīng)商，不得不停產(chǎn)長達(dá)數(shù)月，當(dāng)年手機(jī)部門就宣告虧損高達(dá)17億美元，最終導(dǎo)致該部門被索尼收購。

How can businesses implement redundancy while avoiding prohibitive expense or inefficiency? First, managers should identify the stakeholders—they might be suppliers or innovation partners—on which the business is most dependent. For Ericsson, that set would have included Philips. Next, they should determine the feasibility of creating redundancy to reduce risk. Often this will involve developing new partners, which necessitates careful consideration of the trade-offs involved.

企業(yè)如何兼得低成本高效率與冗余呢？首先，管理者要辨認(rèn)企業(yè)最依賴的利益相關(guān)方，它們有可能是供應(yīng)商，也有可能是新的創(chuàng)新合作伙伴。對于愛立信，這個(gè)利益相關(guān)方就是飛利浦。管理者要計(jì)算建立冗余，減少風(fēng)險(xiǎn)的可行性。通常企業(yè)需要開發(fā)新的合作伙伴，并仔細(xì)權(quán)衡其中的利弊。

Expect Surprise, but Reduce Uncertainty

04.降低不確定性

A key feature of complex adaptive systems is that we cannot precisely predict their future states. However, we?can?collect signals, detect patterns of change, and imagine plausible outcomes—and take action to minimize undesirable ones.

復(fù)雜自適應(yīng)系統(tǒng)的一個(gè)關(guān)鍵特征是我們無法準(zhǔn)確預(yù)測其未來狀態(tài)。但是，我們能收集信號，判斷變化的模式并設(shè)想出合理的結(jié)果。這樣我們就能根據(jù)預(yù)測采取行動(dòng)，將負(fù)面結(jié)果的可能性降到最低。

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In business systems few things are harder to predict than the progress and impact of new technologies. But it can be worthwhile to actively monitor and react to the activities of maverick competitors in an effort to avoid being blindsided. Companies that do this follow a few best practices.

在商業(yè)環(huán)境中，沒有什么能比新技術(shù)的發(fā)展和影響更難預(yù)測。但企業(yè)可以對競爭對手進(jìn)行監(jiān)測，并隨之采取行動(dòng)，避免被不起眼的競爭對手打個(gè)措手不及。我們提供幾個(gè)最佳實(shí)踐可供借鑒。

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First, if they are incumbents, they accept that their business models will be superseded at some point, and they consider how that may happen and what to do about it.

第一，如果公司是在位企業(yè)，首先要承認(rèn)現(xiàn)實(shí)：它們的商業(yè)模式總有一天會被取代。因此它們需要思考，商業(yè)模式如何被取代以及應(yīng)對措施。

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Second, they understand that change often comes from an industry’s periphery—from start-ups or challengers who have no choice but to bet against incumbents’ models.

其次，它們明白，變革往往來自行業(yè)的邊緣，來自那些別無選擇，必須顛覆在位企業(yè)商業(yè)模式的初創(chuàng)企業(yè)和挑戰(zhàn)者。

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Third, they collect weak signals from the smart money flows and early-stage entrepreneurial activity that constitute those bets against their models.

第三，它們會收集一些微弱的信號，例如投資的流向以及針對目前商業(yè)模式的初期創(chuàng)業(yè)活動(dòng)。

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Fourth, they practice contingent thinking: Rather than posing the unanswerable question of whether this or that company or technology will succeed, they ask,?If?the maverick’s idea worked, what would be the consequences for us?

第四，它們會采取應(yīng)急思維。與其費(fèi)盡心思預(yù)測新技術(shù)和公司能否成功，它們需要思考：如果創(chuàng)新技術(shù)獲得成功，它會對我們帶來什么樣的影響。

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Finally, they take preemptive action against such threats by replicating the idea, acquiring it, or building defenses against it.

最后，它們會先下手為強(qiáng)，復(fù)制創(chuàng)新、收購初創(chuàng)企業(yè)或建立防御體制。

Create Feedback Loops and Adaptive Mechanisms

05.建立反饋機(jī)制

While heterogeneity provides the variety on which selection operates, feedback loops ensure that selection takes place and improves the fitness of the system. Feedback is the mechanism through which systems detect changes in the environment and use them to amplify desirable traits. The fact that selection occurs at the local level implies, paradoxically, that some?lack?of robustness at lower levels may be necessary for robustness in the larger system. That is, the system must destroy order locally to maintain its fitness at higher levels.

系統(tǒng)的異質(zhì)性提供了多樣化選擇，而反饋循環(huán)則保證這些選擇能改善系統(tǒng)的健康程度。反饋，是指系統(tǒng)察覺環(huán)境變化，并通過這些變化獲得理想特性的機(jī)制（或通過創(chuàng)新提升企業(yè)的魯棒性）。系統(tǒng)必須破壞低級別參與者之間的平衡，才能保證整個(gè)系統(tǒng)的健康。

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In nature, mutation and natural selection—the variation, selection, and propagation of genes that contribute to reproductive success—is an autonomous process.

在自然界中，突變和自然選擇——多樣化、選擇和基因傳承這一過程導(dǎo)致的生殖成功——是一個(gè)自發(fā)的迭代過程。

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In business the analog is a predominantly “managed” activity. The variation, selection, and propagation of innovations happen only when leaders explicitly create and encourage mechanisms that promote those things. In fact, mainstream management thinking, as taught in many business schools, may actively suppress the intrinsic “variance” and “inefficiency” associated with iterative experimentation.

然而在商業(yè)環(huán)境中，這一過程往往是人為管理的。多樣化、選擇和創(chuàng)新的傳承只有在有利的環(huán)境下才能發(fā)生。換言之，企業(yè)的領(lǐng)導(dǎo)者必須建立起能鼓勵(lì)這一創(chuàng)新迭代過程的機(jī)制和環(huán)境。

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How can a company implement the process of iterative innovation?

那么公司應(yīng)如何實(shí)施創(chuàng)新迭代的流程？? ??

First, it must detect the right signals from across the organization. This is not trivial.?Frontline employees have valuable information that typically isn’t transmitted and amplified. Leaders need to engage with those employees to discover innovations that could improve robustness.?

首先，公司必須在組織上下找到正確的信號，這點(diǎn)舉足輕重。一線員工往往擁有非常有價(jià)值的信息，它們往往得不到傳播和重視。企業(yè)領(lǐng)導(dǎo)者需要接觸這些員工，才能發(fā)現(xiàn)那些提升企業(yè)魯棒性的創(chuàng)新舉措。

Second, the organization must translate those signals into action. This may seem self-evident, but large companies often find themselves unable to implement this crucial second step because it may require diverting resources from the dominant product or business model and perhaps allowing underperforming products, businesses, and employees to fail more quickly.

其次，組織必須將這些信號轉(zhuǎn)化為行動(dòng)。盡管這一步看上去不言自明，但很多企業(yè)無法將知識轉(zhuǎn)化為行動(dòng)，因?yàn)檫@需要企業(yè)從王牌產(chǎn)品或商業(yè)模式中抽出資源，或者讓本就表現(xiàn)不佳的產(chǎn)品、業(yè)務(wù)和員工更快出局。

This is not to say that the tighter the feedback, the better. If the feedback cycle becomes too short or the response to change is too strong, the system may overshoot its targets and become unstable.?

值得注意的是，反饋越強(qiáng)并不意味著結(jié)果越好。如果反饋循環(huán)過短，或?qū)ψ兓姆磻?yīng)過激，系統(tǒng)可能會用力過猛，反而削弱其穩(wěn)定性。? ?

Foster Trust and Reciprocity

06.建立互惠信任

This is the quandary of so-called collective action problems: Individuals lack incentives to act in ways that benefit the overall system unless they benefit in immediate ways themselves. Trust and the enforcement of reciprocity combine to provide a mechanism for organizations to overcome this quandary.?

所謂的集體行為悖論，是個(gè)體缺乏動(dòng)力做出有利于整體的行為，除非這些行為能立即為個(gè)體帶來益處。因此，組織只有建立起信任和互惠的機(jī)制才能克服這種悖論。? ?

The Nobel laureate Elinor Ostrom studied situations in which users of a common-pool resource, such as a fishery ecosystem, are able to avoid the “tragedy of the commons,” whereby public resources are overexploited to the eventual detriment of everyone involved. Her insight was that trust, along with variables such as the number of users, the presence of leadership, and the level of knowledge, promotes self-organization for sustainability. It allows users to create norms of reciprocity and keep agreements.

諾貝爾經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)獎(jiǎng)得主埃莉諾·奧斯特羅姆(Elinor Ostrom)曾對公共資源的使用進(jìn)行研究。她觀察到，漁業(yè)生態(tài)系統(tǒng)可以避免“公地悲劇”現(xiàn)象——公共資源被過度利用，導(dǎo)致所有個(gè)體最終受到損失。她發(fā)現(xiàn)，個(gè)體可以形成自組織來提升公地的可持續(xù)性。自組織允許參與者建立互惠的規(guī)則和協(xié)議。

To leverage the power of trust, leaders should consider how their firms contribute to other stakeholders in their ecosystem. They must ensure that they are adding value to the system even as they seek to maximize profits.? ? ?

要發(fā)揮信任的力量，企業(yè)領(lǐng)導(dǎo)者應(yīng)思考，他們的企業(yè)如何為生態(tài)系統(tǒng)中的其他利益相關(guān)方做出貢獻(xiàn)。即便在追求自身利益最大化時(shí)，他們也必須保證為整個(gè)系統(tǒng)提供價(jià)值。

Novo Nordisk’s approach to new markets illustrates how this can work. It demonstrated its local commitment by building production sites and an R&D center in China. These efforts not only developed the market—they built trust between the company and other stakeholders. And they paid off. Novo Nordisk now controls about 60% of China’s enormous insulin market. Making a clear commitment to other stakeholders and the social good enhanced the robustness of the firm?and?strengthened the broader CAS in which it is nested.

諾和諾德進(jìn)入中國市場的策略，提供了一個(gè)絕佳的案例。諾和諾德通過在中國建立生產(chǎn)基地和研發(fā)中心，來表明對當(dāng)?shù)蒯t(yī)療事業(yè)的支持。這些舉動(dòng)不僅幫助公司打開了市場，更建立了與其他利益相關(guān)方之間的信任。公司的努力獲得了回報(bào)，目前諾和諾德占據(jù)了中國龐大胰島素市場的60%左右。對其他利益相關(guān)方和社會福祉做出清晰的承諾讓公司提升了自身的魯棒性，并讓其所在的整個(gè)社會變得更加強(qiáng)健。

Rising corporate mortality is an increasing threat, and the forces driving it—the dynamism and complexity of the business environment—are likely to remain strong for the foreseeable future.

企業(yè)死亡率不斷上升為所有公司帶來威脅，其背后的主因是商業(yè)環(huán)境變得越來越復(fù)雜，這一狀況在可預(yù)見的未來不會發(fā)生變化。

A paradigm shift in managerial thinking is needed. Leaders are used to asking, “How can we win this game?” Today they must also ask, “How can we extend this game?”? ? ?? ? ?

因此，我們需要徹底轉(zhuǎn)變管理思維。過去，企業(yè)領(lǐng)導(dǎo)者會問：“我們?nèi)绾卧诟偁幹袆俪?？?/strong>如今他們必須回答的問題是：“我們?nèi)绾位畹酶?？?/strong>

馬丁·里維斯、西蒙·萊文、上田大地 | 文

馬丁·里維斯是波士頓咨詢公司高級合伙人；

西蒙·萊文是普林斯頓大學(xué)生物學(xué)George M. Moffett教席教授；

上田大地是波士頓咨詢公司助理咨詢顧問。

安健 | 譯? 劉筱薇| 校? 鈕鍵軍 | 編輯

本文有刪節(jié)，原文參見《哈佛商業(yè)評論》中文版2016年1月刊。

標(biāo)簽：哈佛商業(yè)評論魯棒性知識社會企業(yè)商業(yè)管理