The Athenian Empire?

雅典帝國?

The most glorious days of Ancient Greece fell in the fifth-century bc, during fifty years of peace between two periods of warfare. The century began with wars between Greece and Persia, and ended with a war between the city states of Greece itself.In the middle period flowered the great civilization of the city of Athens.?

古希臘最輝煌的時期是在公元前五世紀(jì)，在兩個戰(zhàn)爭時期之間的50年和平時期。這個世紀(jì)以希臘和波斯之間的戰(zhàn)爭開始，以希臘本身的城邦之間的戰(zhàn)爭結(jié)束。在中間時期，雅典城的偉大文明開花結(jié)果。

Ionia, where the earliest philosophers had flourished, had been under Persian rule since?the mid-sixth century. In 499 the Ionian Greeks rose in revolt against the Persian king, Darius.?

最早的哲學(xué)家們曾在此繁衍生息的愛奧尼亞，自六世紀(jì)中葉以來一直處于波斯人的統(tǒng)治之下。499年，愛奧尼亞希臘人起義，反對波斯國王大流士。

After crushing the rising, Darius invaded Greece to punish those who had assisted the rebels from the mainland. A mainly Athenian force defeated the invading army at Marathon in 490.?

在粉碎了這次起義后，大流士入侵希臘，以懲罰那些從大陸上協(xié)助叛軍的人。490年，一支以雅典人為主的部隊在馬拉松擊敗了入侵的軍隊。

Darius’ son Xerxes launched a more massive expedition in 484, defeated a gallant band of Spartans at Thermopylae, and forced the Athenians to evacuate their city. But his fleet was defeated by a united Greek navy near the offshore island of Salamis, and a Greek land victory at Platea in 479 put an end to the invasion.?

大流士的兒子薛西斯在484年發(fā)動了一次更大規(guī)模的遠(yuǎn)征，在瑟莫比萊擊敗了一支英勇的斯巴達(dá)人，并迫使雅典人撤離他們的城市。但他的艦隊在近海的薩拉米斯島附近被一支聯(lián)合的希臘海軍擊敗，479年希臘在普拉提亞的陸地勝利結(jié)束了入侵

After the invasions, Athens assumed the leadership of the Greek allies. It was the Athenians who liberated the Ionian Greeks, and it was Athens, supported by contributions from other cities, which controlled the navy that kept the freedom of the Aegean and Ionian seas. What began as a federation grew into an Athenian Empire.

入侵之后，雅典承擔(dān)了希臘盟友的領(lǐng)導(dǎo)權(quán)。是雅典人解放了愛奧尼亞希臘人，是雅典在其他城市的支持下，控制了保持愛琴海和愛奧尼亞海域自由的海軍。一開始是一個聯(lián)邦，后來發(fā)展成為一個雅典帝國。

Internally, Athens was a democracy, the first authenticated example of such a polity. ‘Democracy’ is the Greek word for the rule of the people, and Athenian democracy was a very thoroughgoing form of that rule.?

就內(nèi)部而言，雅典是一個民主國家，是這種政體的第一個被證實的例子。民主 "在希臘語中是指人民的統(tǒng)治，而雅典民主是這種統(tǒng)治的一種非常徹底的形式。

Athens was not like a modern democracy, in which the citizens elect representatives to form a government. Rather, each citizen had the right personally to take part in government by attending a general assembly, where he could listen to speeches by political leaders and then cast his vote.?

雅典并不像現(xiàn)代民主制度那樣，由公民選舉代表組成政府。相反，每個公民都有權(quán)通過參加大會親自參與政府，在大會上他可以聽取政治領(lǐng)導(dǎo)人的演講，然后投出自己的一票。

To see what this would mean in modern terms, imagine that members of the cabinet and shadow cabinet speak on television for two hours, after which a motion is put and a decision taken on the basis of votes recorded by each viewer pressing either a ‘yes’ or ‘no’ button on the television set.?

為了了解這在現(xiàn)代術(shù)語中的含義，想象一下內(nèi)閣和影子內(nèi)閣成員在電視上發(fā)言兩個小時，然后提出一項動議，并根據(jù)每個觀眾在電視機上按下 "是 "或 "否 "按鈕所記錄的投票作出決定。

To make the parallel precise, one would have to add that only male citizens over 20 are allowed to press the button; and no women or children, or slaves or foreigners.

為了使打的比方更加精確，我們必須補充一點，即只有20歲以上的男性公民才允許按下按鈕；而沒有婦女或兒童，或奴隸或外國人。

The judiciary and the legislature in Athens were drawn by lot from members of the assembly over thirty; laws were passed by a panel of 1,000 chosen for one day only, and major trials were conducted before a jury of 501. Even the magistrates – the executives charged with carrying out the decisions of government, whether judicial, financial, or military – were largely chosen by lot; only about one hundred were elected officers.?

雅典的司法和立法機構(gòu)是從三十歲以上的議會成員中抽簽選出的；法律是由一千名只選一天的委員通過的，重大案件是在五百零一名陪審團(tuán)面前進(jìn)行的。甚至連執(zhí)政官——負(fù)責(zé)執(zhí)行政府的決定，無論是司法的、財政的還是軍事的——也大多是抽簽選出的；只有大約一百名是選舉出來的官員。

Never before or since have the ordinary people of a state taken so full a part in its government. It is important to remember this when reading what Greek philosophers have to say about the merits and demerits of democratic institutions.?

從來沒有哪個國家的普通人民在其政府中扮演過如此重要的角色。在閱讀希臘哲學(xué)家對民主制度的優(yōu)缺點所說的話時，記住這一點很重要。

Athenians dated their constitution to the reforms of Cleisthenes in 508 bc, and that year is often taken to be the birthdate of democracy.

雅典人把他們的憲法追溯到公元前508年克里斯提尼斯的改革，那一年通常被認(rèn)為是民主的誕生之年。

Athenian democracy was not incompatible with aristocratic leadership, and during its period of empire Athens, by popular choice, was governed by Pericles, the great-nephew of Cleisthenes. He instituted an ambitious programme to rebuild the city’s temples which had been destroyed by Xerxes. To this day, visitors travel across the world to see the ruins of the buildings he erected on the Acropolis, the city’s citadel. The sculptures with which these temples were decorated are among the most treasured possessions of the museums in which they are now scattered. The Parthenon, the temple of the virgin goddess Athena, was a thank-offering for the victories of the Persian wars. The Elgin marbles in the British Museum, brought from the temple ruins by Lord Elgin in 1803, represent a great Athenian festival, the Panathenaea, just such a one as Parmenides and Zeno saw in the years when the building works were beginning.?

雅典民主與貴族領(lǐng)導(dǎo)并不矛盾，在其帝國時期，雅典由人民選擇由克里斯提尼斯的侄孫裴里克勒斯統(tǒng)治。他制定了一個雄心勃勃的計劃，重建被澤克西斯摧毀的城市神廟。直到今天，游客還從世界各地前來參觀他在雅典衛(wèi)城上建造的建筑遺址。這些神廟上裝飾著的雕塑是現(xiàn)在散落在各個博物館中最珍貴的財富之一。帕特農(nóng)神廟，處女女神雅典娜的神廟，是為了感謝波斯戰(zhàn)爭的勝利而建造的。1803年，埃爾金勛爵從神廟遺址上帶走了埃爾金大理石，現(xiàn)藏于大英博物館，它們代表了一個偉大的雅典節(jié)日，潘雅忒奈亞節(jié)，就是像巴門尼德和芝諾在建筑工程開始時所看到的那樣。

When Pericles’ programme was complete, Athens was unrivalled anywhere in the world for architecture and sculpture.?

當(dāng)裴里克勒斯的計劃完成時，雅典在建筑和雕塑方面無與倫比，舉世無雙。

Athens held the primacy too in drama and literature. Aeschylus, who had fought in the Persian wars, was the first great writer of tragedy: he brought onto the stage the heroes and heroines of Homeric epic, and his re-enactment of the homecoming and murder of Agamemnon can still fascinate and horrify. Aeschylus also represented the more recent catastrophes which had afflicted King Xerxes.?

雅典在戲劇和文學(xué)方面也占據(jù)了首要地位。埃斯庫羅斯，曾參加過波斯戰(zhàn)爭，是第一位偉大的悲劇作家：他把荷馬史詩中的英雄和女主人公帶上了舞臺，他對阿伽門農(nóng)的歸來和謀殺的再現(xiàn)仍然能夠引人入勝和驚悚。埃斯庫羅斯還描繪了近期困擾澤克西斯國王的災(zāi)難。

Younger dramatists, the pious conservative Sophocles and the more radical and sceptical Euripides, set the classical pattern of tragic drama. Sophocles’ plays about King Oedipus, killer of his father and husband of his mother, and Euripides’ portrayal of the child-murderer Medea, not only figure in the twentieth-century repertoire but strike disturbing chords in the twentieth-century psyche. The serious writing of history, also, began in this century, with Herodotus’ chronicles of the Persian Wars written in the early years of the century, and Thucydides’ narrative of the war between the Greeks as it came to an end.?

年輕的戲劇家，虔誠保守的索福克勒斯和更激進(jìn)懷疑的歐里庇得斯，確立了悲劇戲劇的古典模式。索?？死账龟P(guān)于國王俄狄浦斯，殺死他父親并娶他母親為妻的戲劇，以及歐里庇得斯對殺兒魔女美狄亞的刻畫，不僅出現(xiàn)在二十世紀(jì)的劇目中，而且在二十世紀(jì)的心理中引起了令人不安的共鳴。嚴(yán)肅的歷史寫作也始于這個世紀(jì)，赫羅多德在本世紀(jì)初年寫下了波斯戰(zhàn)爭的編年史，修昔底德則講述了希臘人之間的戰(zhàn)爭如何結(jié)束。

Anaxagoras

阿那克薩戈拉

Philosophy, too, came to Athens in the age of Pericles. Anaxagoras of Clazomenae (near Izmir) was born about 500 bc and was thus about forty years older than Democritus. He came to Athens after the end of the Persian wars, and became a friend and associate of Pericles. He wrote a book on natural philosophy in the style of his Ionian predecessors, acknowledging a particular debt to Anaximenes; it was the first such treatise, we are told, to contain diagrams.?

哲學(xué)也在裴里克勒斯時代來到了雅典。克拉佐梅尼的阿那克薩戈拉（靠近伊茲密爾）大約出生于公元前500年，因此比德謨克利特大約大四十歲。他在波斯戰(zhàn)爭結(jié)束后來到雅典，成為裴里克勒斯的朋友和同事。他用他的愛奧尼亞前輩的風(fēng)格寫了一本自然哲學(xué)的書，承認(rèn)他特別欠阿那克西美尼一個人情；據(jù)我們所知，這是第一部包含圖表的論文。

Anaxagoras’ account of the origin of the world is strikingly similar to a model which is popular today. At the beginning, he said, ‘a(chǎn)ll things were together’, in a unit infinitely complex and infinitely small which lacked all perceptible qualities. This primeval pebble began to rotate, expanding as it did so, and throwing off air and ether, and eventually the stars and the sun and the moon. In the course of the rotation, what is dense separated off from what is rarefied, and so did the hot from the cold, the bright from the dark, and the dry from the wet. Thus the articulated substances of our world were formed, with the dense and the wet and the cold and the dark congregating where our earth now is, and the rare and the hot and the dry and the bright moving to the outermost parts of the ether.?

阿那克薩戈拉對世界起源的描述與今天流行的一個模型驚人地相似。一開始，他說，“萬物都在一起”，在一個無限復(fù)雜、無限小、缺乏所有可感知品質(zhì)的單位中。這個原始的礫石開始旋轉(zhuǎn)，隨著它的旋轉(zhuǎn)而擴(kuò)張，拋出空氣和以太，最終形成了星星和太陽和月亮。在旋轉(zhuǎn)過程中，密集的東西與稀薄的東西分離開來，熱的與冷的、明亮的與黑暗的、干燥的與濕潤的也是如此。于是我們世界上的有機物質(zhì)就形成了，密集的、濕潤的、寒冷的、黑暗的聚集在我們現(xiàn)在所在的地球上，稀薄的、熱的、干燥的、明亮的則移動到以太最外層。

In a manner, however, Anaxagoras maintained, ‘a(chǎn)s things were in the beginning, so now they are all together’: that is, in every single thing there is a portion of everything else; there is a little whiteness in what is black, and something lightweight in whatever is heavy. This was clearest in the case of semen, which must contain hair and nails and muscles and bones and ever so much else. The expansion of the universe, according to Anaxagoras, has continued until the present, and will continue in the future, and perhaps it is even now generating inhabited worlds other than our own.?

然而，在某種意義上，阿那克薩戈拉堅持說，“萬物如初，如今仍然如此”：也就是說，在每一件事物中都有其他事物的一部分；在黑色的東西中有一點白色，在重的東西中有一些輕的東西。這在精液的情況下最清楚，它必須包含頭發(fā)和指甲和肌肉和骨頭和其他很多東西。根據(jù)阿那克薩哥拉斯的說法，宇宙的擴(kuò)張一直持續(xù)到現(xiàn)在，將來也會繼續(xù)，也許它甚至現(xiàn)在就在產(chǎn)生除了我們自己之外的有人居住的世界。

The motion which generates the development of the universe is set in train by Mind. Mind is something entirely different from the matter over whose history it presides. It is infinite and separate, and has no part in the general commingling of elements; if it did, it would get drawn into the evolutionary process and could not control it.?

產(chǎn)生宇宙發(fā)展的運動是由心靈引發(fā)的。心靈是與它主宰的物質(zhì)完全不同的東西。它是無限的和分離的，它不參與元素的一般混合；如果它參與了，它就會被卷入進(jìn)化過程，而不能控制它。

In the 430s, when the popularity of Pericles began to wane, his protégé Anaxagoras was targeted for attack. He had said that the sun was a fiery lump, somewhat larger than the Peloponnesus. This was taken as inconsistent with worship of the sun as a god, and was made the basis of a charge of impiety. He fled to Lampsacus on the Hellespont and lived there in honourable exile until his death in 428.?

在公元前430年代，當(dāng)裴里克勒斯的聲望開始衰落時，他的門徒阿那克薩戈拉成為了攻擊的目標(biāo)。他曾說過太陽是一個火球，比伯羅奔尼撒半島稍大一些。這被認(rèn)為與把太陽當(dāng)作神來崇拜是不一致的，也成為了對他不敬罪的指控的依據(jù)。他逃到了赫勒斯滂的蘭帕薩克斯，在那里以光榮的流亡者的身份生活，直到公元前428年去世。

The Sophists

智者\詭辯學(xué)派

Anaxagoras, during the rule of Pericles, was without rival as a resident philosopher in Athens. But during the same period the city received visits from a number of itinerant purveyors of learning who left behind reputations not inferior to his. These peripatetic teachers, or advisers, were called sophists: they were willing, for a fee, to impart many different skills and to act as consultants on a variety of topics.

在伯里克利統(tǒng)治時期，阿那克薩戈拉是雅典無可匹敵的本地哲學(xué)家。但在同一時期，這座城市也接待了許多流動的學(xué)問傳播者，他們留下了不亞于他的聲譽。這些周游的教師或顧問被稱為智者：他們愿意收取一定的費用，傳授各種技能，并在各種話題上提供咨詢。

As there was no public system of higher education in Athens, it fell to the sophists to instruct those young men who could afford their services in the arts and information which they would need in their adult life. Given the importance of public pleading in the assembly and before the courts, rhetorical skill was at a premium, and sophists were much in demand to teach, and assist with, the presentation of a case in the most favourable possible light. Critics alleged that because they were more concerned with persuasiveness than with the pursuit of truth, the sophists were no true philosophers. None the less, the best of them were quite capable of holding their own in philosophical argument.

由于雅典沒有公共的高等教育體系，所以教導(dǎo)那些能夠負(fù)擔(dān)他們服務(wù)費用的年輕人藝術(shù)和信息的任務(wù)就落到了智者身上，這些藝術(shù)和信息是他們成年后所需要的?？紤]到在議會和法庭上進(jìn)行公開辯護(hù)的重要性，修辭技巧是非常寶貴的，智者也因此受到了很大的需求，他們教授并協(xié)助如何以最有利的方式陳述一個案件。批評者指責(zé)他們更關(guān)心說服力而不是真理的追求，因此智者不是真正的哲學(xué)家。盡管如此，他們中最優(yōu)秀的人還是很有能力在哲學(xué)論戰(zhàn)中堅持自己的觀點。

The most famous of the sophists was Protagoras of Abdera, who visited Athens several times during the mid-fifth century, and was employed by Pericles to draw up a constitution for an Athenian colony. Most of what we know of Protagoras comes from the writings of Plato, who disapproved of sophists and regarded them as a bad influence on the young, encouragers of scepticism, relativism, and cynicism. None the less, Plato took Protagoras seriously and endeavoured to provide answers to his arguments.

智者中最著名的是阿貝德拉的普羅泰戈拉，他在公元前五世紀(jì)中期多次訪問雅典，并受伯里克利雇用為雅典殖民地起草憲法。我們所知道的關(guān)于普羅泰戈拉的大部分內(nèi)容都來自柏拉圖的著作，他不贊成智者，并認(rèn)為他們對年輕人有不良影響，是懷疑論、相對主義和犬儒主義的鼓吹者。盡管如此，柏拉圖還是認(rèn)真對待普羅泰戈拉，并努力給出對他的論點的回答。

Protagoras was agnostic in religion. ‘About the gods,’ he said, ‘I cannot be sure whether they exist or not, or what they are like to see; for many things stand in the way of knowledge of them, both the opacity of the subject and the shortness of human life.’ He was more a humanist than a theist: ‘Man is the measure of all things,’ ran his most famous saying, ‘both of things that are that they are, and of things that are not that they are not.’

普羅泰戈拉在宗教上是不可知論者。他說：“關(guān)于神，我不能確定他們是否存在，或者他們的樣子如何；因為有許多事情妨礙了對他們的認(rèn)識，既有論題的不透明性，也有人類生命的短暫?！毕啾扔谟猩裾撜?，他更是一個人文主義者：“人是萬物的尺度，”他最著名的格言如此說，“無論是存在的事物，還是不存在的事物?！?/p>

On the most likely interpretation, this means that whatever, whether through perception or through thought, appears to a particular person to be true, is true for that person. This does away with objective truth: nothing can be true absolutely, but only true relative to an individual. When people differ in belief, there is no way in which one of them is right and the other wrong. Democritus, and later Plato, objected that Protagoras’ doctrine destroyed itself. For if all beliefs are true, then among true beliefs is the belief that not every belief is true.

按照最可能的解釋，這意味著無論是通過感知還是通過思考，對于某個特定的人來說是真的，就是對那個人來說是真的。這就否定了客觀真理：沒有什么可以絕對地為真，只能相對于個體而為真。當(dāng)人們在信念上有分歧時，沒有辦法判斷其中一個是對的，另一個是錯的。德謨克利特和后來的柏拉圖反對普羅泰戈拉的學(xué)說，認(rèn)為它自相矛盾。因為如果所有的信念都是真的，那么在真實的信念中就有不是每個信念都是真的這樣一個信念?！鞠螅悍虼等f不同】

Another sophist, Gorgias of Leontini, had been a pupil of Empedocles. He was first and foremost a teacher of rhetoric, whose essays on the polishing of style influenced the history of Greek oratory. But he was also a philosopher, of a tendency even more sceptical than that of Protagoras. He is said to have maintained that there is nothing, that if there is anything it cannot be known, and if anything can be known it cannot be communicated by one person to another.

另一個智者，萊昂提尼的戈爾吉亞斯，曾經(jīng)是恩培多克勒的學(xué)生。他首先也是最重要的是一個修辭學(xué)教師，他關(guān)于文體修飾的論文影響了希臘演講術(shù)的歷史。但他也是一位哲學(xué)家，比普羅泰戈拉更傾向于懷疑論。據(jù)說他主張沒有什么東西存在，即使有什么東西存在也無法被認(rèn)識，即使有什么東西可以被認(rèn)識也無法被一個人傳達(dá)給另一個人。

By the time Gorgias visited Athens, in 427, a war had commenced between Athens and Sparta, known as the Peloponnesian war. Shortly after the outbreak of war, Pericles died, and campaign after campaign went badly for Athens. Defeat and plague brutalized the Athenians, and they became cruel and unscrupulous in warfare. They forfeited all claim to moral grandeur in 416 when they occupied the island of Melos, slaughtered all the adult males and enslaved the women and children. The later tragedies of Euripides, and some of the comedies of his contemporary Aristophanes, expressed an eloquent protest against the Athenian conduct of the war. It concluded with a crushing naval defeat at Aegospotami in 405 bc. The Athenian empire came to an end, and the leadership of Greece passed to Sparta. But the great days of Athenian philosophy were still to come.

在戈爾吉亞斯訪問雅典的時候，公元前427年，雅典和斯巴達(dá)之間已經(jīng)爆發(fā)了一場戰(zhàn)爭，被稱為伯羅奔尼撒戰(zhàn)爭。戰(zhàn)爭爆發(fā)后不久，伯里克利去世了，一次又一次的戰(zhàn)役對雅典不利。失敗和瘟疫使雅典人變得野蠻和無恥，在戰(zhàn)爭中殘忍無情。他們在公元前416年占領(lǐng)美洛斯島時，屠殺了所有的成年男子，奴役了婦女和兒童，從而喪失了所有的道德偉大的要求。后來的歐里庇得斯的悲劇，以及他同時代的亞里士多芬的一些喜劇，都對雅典人的戰(zhàn)爭行為表達(dá)了雄辯的抗議。這場戰(zhàn)爭以公元前405年在愛戈斯波塔米的慘痛的海軍失敗而結(jié)束。雅典帝國走向了終結(jié)，希臘的領(lǐng)導(dǎo)地位轉(zhuǎn)移到了斯巴達(dá)。但是雅典哲學(xué)的偉大時代還有待到來。