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【簡譯】中世紀(jì)的貿(mào)易

2022-10-14 10:50 作者:神尾智代 0人讀過 | 我要投稿

Medieval trades were essential to the daily welfare of the community and those who learned a skill through apprenticeship could make a higher and more regular income than farmers or soldiers. Professionals like millers, blacksmiths, masons, bakers and weavers grouped together by trade to form guilds to protect their rights, guarantee prices, maintain industry standards and keep out unlicensed competition.

? ? ? ? ? 中世紀(jì)的各行各業(yè)對社區(qū)的日常福利至關(guān)重要，那些以學(xué)徒身份學(xué)習(xí)技能的人可以比農(nóng)民或士兵獲得更高更多的固定收入。像磨坊主、鐵匠、泥瓦匠、面包師和織工這樣的專業(yè)人士根據(jù)行業(yè)組合在一起，成立行會，以維護他們的權(quán)利，保證市場價格，維持行業(yè)標(biāo)準(zhǔn)，并阻止不正當(dāng)競爭。

As towns grew into cities from the 11th century so trades diversified and medieval shopping streets began to boast all manner of skilled workers and their goods on sale, from saddlers to silversmiths and tanners to tailors. Naturally, trades and trading practices varied over time and place throughout the Middle Ages and so what follows is a general overview of some of the common and interesting features of trades in medieval Europe.

? ? ? ? ? 從11世紀(jì)開始，隨著城鎮(zhèn)逐漸發(fā)展成為城市，貿(mào)易也隨之多樣化，中世紀(jì)的商業(yè)街上開始出現(xiàn)各種形式的熟練工人和他們出售的商品，從馬鞍工到銀匠，從制革工到裁縫。當(dāng)然，在整個中世紀(jì)，貿(mào)易和貿(mào)易慣例因時間與地點的不同而相異，因此，下面是對中世紀(jì)歐洲貿(mào)易的一些常見和有趣特征的總體概述。

學(xué)? ? ?徒

Many children learnt the trade of their parents by informal observation and helping out with small tasks but there were also full apprenticeships, paid for by parents, where young people lived with a skilled worker or master and learned their craft. Very often a master who took on an apprentice also took on the role of parent, providing all their needs and moral guidance while in turn the apprentice was expected to be obedient to their master in all matters. An apprentice was not usually paid but did receive their food, lodgings and clothing. Boys and girls typically became apprentices in their early teens but sometimes they were as young as seven years old when they started out on the long road to learn a specific trade. There were many cases of apprentices running away and rules were established that the master and the apprentice's father had to spend one day each looking for the missing youth. There were time limits of one year, after which a master need not take the escapee back under apprenticeship.

? ? ? ? ? 許多孩子通過非正式的觀察和幫助完成小任務(wù)來學(xué)習(xí)他們父母的手藝，但也有由父母支付費用的正式學(xué)徒；年輕人與熟練工人或師傅住在一起，學(xué)習(xí)他們的手藝。很多時候，帶學(xué)徒的師傅也扮演著父母的角色，為學(xué)徒們提供所有的需求和道德指導(dǎo)，而反過來，學(xué)徒也被期望在所有問題上服從他們的師傅。學(xué)徒通常沒有報酬，但可以獲得食物、住宿和衣服。男孩和女孩通常在十幾歲時成為學(xué)徒，但有時他們在七歲時就開始走上學(xué)習(xí)特定貿(mào)易的漫長道路。有許多學(xué)徒逃跑的案例，所以在當(dāng)時制定了規(guī)則，即師傅和學(xué)徒的父親必須各花一天時間來尋找失蹤的青年。有一年的時間限制，在這之后，師傅不需要把逃跑的人帶回。

The length of the apprenticeship depended on the trade and the master (the benefit of free labour was a temptation to extend the training for as long as possible) but around seven years seems to have been the average. A cook's apprentice might only need two years training while at the other end of the spectrum a metalworker like a goldsmith might have to learn their trade for ten years before they could set themselves up with their own business. An apprentice usually qualified by producing a 'masterpiece' which showed off his acquired skills. Earning the title of master cost money besides skill, though, and a qualified apprentice who could not afford their own place of business was known as a journeyman as they usually travelled around and found work with a master with premises wherever they could.

? ? ? ? ? 學(xué)徒期的長短取決于行業(yè)和師傅（免費勞動力的好處是盡可能延長培訓(xùn)時間的誘惑），但大約七年時間似乎是當(dāng)時的平均值。廚師學(xué)徒可能只需要兩年的培訓(xùn)，而像金匠這樣的金屬工匠可能需要學(xué)習(xí)十年的手藝，然后才能建立自己的作坊。學(xué)徒通常通過制作一個“杰出的作品”來展示他所獲得的技能，從而獲得從業(yè)資格。不過，贏得大師的頭銜除了技術(shù)之外還需要金錢，一個合格的學(xué)徒如果沒有能力負擔(dān)自己的營業(yè)場所，他們還是會被稱為學(xué)徒，因為他們通常會四處奔波，在任何可就業(yè)的地方找到有場所的大師工作。

中世紀(jì)的行會

Once their own business was up and running, from the 12th century master tradesmen became members of guilds. These organisations, managed by a core group of seasoned professionals known as guildmasters, sought to protect the working conditions of their members, ensure their products were to a high standard and outside competition was minimised. Regular inspections ensured (at least to some degree) that goods were exactly what they were advertised as, that regulation measurements and weights were adhered to, that prices were correct and that members did not unfairly compete with each other for clients. By imposing regulations on apprenticeship, guilds could also regulate the labour supply and ensure there were not too many masters at any one time and the prices of both labour and goods did not crash.

? ? ? ? ? 從12世紀(jì)開始，貿(mào)易者的生意一旦開始運作，他就立即成為行會的成員。這些行會組織由被稱為行會會長的經(jīng)驗豐富的專業(yè)人員組成的核心小組管理，旨在保護其成員的工作條件，確保其產(chǎn)品達到高標(biāo)準(zhǔn)，并盡量減少外部競爭。定期檢查確保（至少在某種程度上）商品與廣告上的內(nèi)容完全一致，遵守規(guī)定的測量和重量，價格正確，以及成員之間不會不公平地爭奪客戶。通過對學(xué)徒制的規(guī)定，行會也可以調(diào)節(jié)勞動力供應(yīng)，確保在任何時候都不會有過多的師傅，勞動力和商品的價格也不會崩潰。

行業(yè)中的女性

While there were very few guilds specifically for or managed by women, and although most apprentices were male and so too their masters, there was a significant minority of women involved in some trades. Widows, especially, were prominent in the trades as they could, if they were without a close male relative and they remained single, run their deceased husband's business. There were some restrictions, though; for example, they were not able to train an apprentice themselves. Some trades such as the poulterers of Paris did permit any woman with means to own businesses, while many trades such as silk production and veil makers were dominated by women workers. There are records (notably tax assessments), then, of all manner of trades being managed by women from lacemakers to butchers.

? ? ? ? ? 雖然很少有專門為女性服務(wù)或由女性管理的行會，大多數(shù)學(xué)徒是男性，他們的師傅也是男性，但有相當(dāng)一部分女性參與了一些行業(yè)。尤其是寡婦，她們在這些行業(yè)中很突出，因為如果她們沒有近親，而且仍然單身，她們可以經(jīng)營已故丈夫的生意。不過，也有一些限制；例如，她們不能自己培訓(xùn)學(xué)徒。一些行業(yè)，如巴黎的家禽業(yè)，確實允許任何有能力的女性擁有自己的企業(yè)，而許多行業(yè)，如絲綢生產(chǎn)和面紗制作，則由女工主導(dǎo)。因此，有記錄顯示（特別是納稅評估），許多行業(yè)都有女性的身影，從花邊師到屠夫。

磨坊主

Each castle or manor had its own mill to serve the needs of its surrounding estate, not only for the grain from the lord's lands but also that of the serfs who were usually obliged to grind their grain at the lord's mill. Mills could be powered by wind, water, horses or people. One essential item to set up business was a good quality millstone that did not wear smooth quickly but, unfortunately, this was a pricey commodity. The Rhineland gained a great reputation for producing the best millstones and one of those could cost 40 shillings or the equivalent of ten horses in England. With such a heavy investment and because a castle or manor did not need to use its mill very often (even if ground grains did not keep very long), the mill was often rented out to a miller who could then make whatever profit he could from it.

? ? ? ? ? 每個城堡或莊園都有自己的磨坊，以滿足其周圍莊園的需要，不僅是領(lǐng)主土地上的糧食，還有農(nóng)奴的糧食，他們通常必須在領(lǐng)主的磨坊磨制糧食。磨坊的動力可以是風(fēng)、水、馬或人。開辦業(yè)務(wù)的一個必要條件是擁有質(zhì)量好、不會很快磨損的磨石，但不幸的是，這是一種價格昂貴的商品。萊茵蘭因生產(chǎn)最好的磨石而贏得了巨大的聲譽，一塊磨石的價格為40先令，相當(dāng)于英國的10匹馬。由于投資如此之大，而且城堡或莊園不需要經(jīng)常使用其磨坊（即使磨出的谷物保存時間不長），磨坊往往被出租給磨坊主，然后他可以從中賺取利潤。

The miller enjoyed a high social status in the community because he was essential to it, had a steady income and it was not an unpleasant job to do. Still, because a miller had to make money in order to pay for the mill's rent, they were sometimes viewed with suspicion by other villagers who worried that they never quite got back the quantity of flour their grain had warranted. As one medieval riddle went:

? ? ? ? ? What is the boldest thing in the world?

? ? ? ? ? A miller's shirt, for it clasps a thief by the throat daily. (Gies, 155)

? ? ? ? ? 磨坊主在社區(qū)中享有很高的社會地位，因為他是社區(qū)的基本成員，有穩(wěn)定的收入，而且這是一份令人愉快的工作。但是，由于磨坊主必須賺錢以支付磨坊的租金，他們有時會被其他村民懷疑，因為他們擔(dān)心自己的糧食永遠無法換回應(yīng)有的面粉數(shù)量。正如中世紀(jì)的一個謎語所說：

? ? ? ? ? 世界上最大膽的東西是什么？

? ? ? ? ? 磨坊主的襯衫，因為它每天都能扣住一個小偷的喉嚨。

鐵? ? ?匠

In the Middle Ages, the cheapest materials were wood and clay but some items required metal, usually iron, which was much more expensive. Thus the blacksmith was as essential as the miller to any medieval community. Many agricultural tools needed iron parts, if only for their cutting edges, and so blacksmiths were kept busy producing new tools and repairing old ones. Cooking pots and horseshoes were other sought-after products from the blacksmith's near-magical ability with forge, hammer and anvil. However, such was the medieval necessity of making things last as long as possible that a village blacksmith might not be so busy that he could earn a living, and he also needed an impressive but costly range of tools and equipment himself in order to fulfill orders. Consequently, blacksmiths usually inherited the business from their fathers and many also farmed some land to make ends meet. A blacksmith at a manor or castle was better off as he might receive charcoal made from the trees of the lord's forest for free and have the benefit of a couple of the lord's serfs working his small strip of farmland while he was busy with his hammer and tongs.

? ? ? ? ? 在中世紀(jì)，最便宜的材料是木材和粘土，但有些物品需要用到金屬，通常是鐵，這種金屬在當(dāng)時要貴得多。因此，鐵匠和磨坊主一樣，是任何中世紀(jì)社區(qū)的必需職業(yè)。許多農(nóng)業(yè)工具需要鐵制部件，即使只是為了切割邊緣，因此鐵匠們一直忙于生產(chǎn)新工具和修理舊工具。炊具和馬蹄鐵是鐵匠在鍛造、錘子和鐵砧方面近乎神奇的能力所帶來的受歡迎的產(chǎn)品。然而，在中世紀(jì)，為了使東西盡可能地持久使用，一個村莊的鐵匠可能不會忙到足以謀生，而且他還需要一系列昂貴的工具和設(shè)備來完成訂單。因此，鐵匠通常從他們的父親那里繼承生意，許多人還耕種一些土地以維持生計。莊園或城堡里的鐵匠情況較好，因為他可能會免費得到領(lǐng)主森林里的樹木制成的木炭，并且在他忙于制造錘子和鉗子的時候，領(lǐng)主的幾個農(nóng)奴也會在他的小塊農(nóng)田里干活。

面包師

With bread forming such an important part of the medieval diet, especially for the lower classes, the bakers were another ever-present trader but they were, for the same reason, one of the most regulated. Regular inspections, at least in towns, ensured bakers were serving the right quality, size and weight of loaves. For this reason, bread was typically stamped with an identification mark of just who had baked it. Despite these precautions, it was not unknown for bakers to supplement the flour content of bread with something a little cheaper like sand. Those who tried to swindle their customers and were caught often found themselves chained to a pillory with the offending bread tied around their necks. In order for fresh bread to be available in the mornings, bakers were one of the few tradesmen permitted to work at night.

? ? ? ? ? 面包是中世紀(jì)飲食的重要組成部分，特別是對下層階級來說，面包師是不可或缺的職業(yè)，但由于同樣的原因，他們也是最受監(jiān)管部門監(jiān)管的商人之一。至少在城鎮(zhèn)，監(jiān)管部門會定期檢查確保面包師提供正確的質(zhì)量、大小和重量的面包。出于這個原因，面包上通常會印有誰烤制的識別標(biāo)記。盡管有這些預(yù)防措施，面包師用沙子等稍微便宜的東西來補充面包中的面粉成分也不是沒有。那些試圖欺騙顧客并被抓到的人常常被鎖在柱子上，脖子上綁著違規(guī)的面包。為了在早晨提供新鮮面包，面包師是少數(shù)被允許在夜間工作的商人之一。

屠? ? ?夫

The butcher prepared choice cuts of pork, mutton, and beef as well as poultry and game. Selling an expensive commodity and occupying the dirtiest and smelliest part of the town, butchers were right down there with the fish merchants in the low popularity stakes amongst urban shoppers. In addition, as with the bakers, many people were suspicious of just what a butcher put in his sausages to save money. As one joke went:

? ? ? ? ? A man asked the sausage butcher for a discount because he had been a faithful customer for seven years. “Seven years!” exclaimed the butcher. “And you're still alive!” (Gies, 49)

? ? ? ? ? 屠夫會準(zhǔn)備精選的豬肉、羊肉和牛肉，以及家禽和野味。屠夫銷售著昂貴的商品，并占據(jù)著城市中最骯臟、最臭的地方，在城市購物者中，屠夫與魚商的人氣都很低。此外，與面包師一樣，許多人懷疑屠夫為了省錢在香腸里放了些什么。正如一個笑話所說：

? ? ? ? ? 一個人要求屠夫打折出售香腸，因為他已經(jīng)是七年的忠實顧客了。“七年了！”屠夫感嘆道?！澳憔尤贿€活著！”

To keep consumer confidence high, there were additional rules imposed by the butchers' guild which prohibited the sale of meat from such animals as cats, dogs, and horses, as well as outlawing the mixture of tallow with lard.

? ? ? ? ? 為了保持消費者的信心，屠夫協(xié)會還制定了額外的規(guī)則，禁止銷售貓、狗和馬等動物的肉，并禁止將牛油與豬油混合。

紡織工

Many peasant women spun thread in the home and then sold it on to a weaver, who was usually male. Although some women would have continued to weave on an upright loom, by the High Middle Ages weaving was typically done on a larger scale by a skilled weaver using a horizontal loom which was beyond the means of a peasant. England and Wales enjoyed a high reputation for their wool in medieval times while Flanders became a major centre of wool cloth production. Wool was washed to remove grease, then dried, beaten, combed and carded. The wool was then spun and worked on the loom to make a rough cloth which was next fulled (soaked, shrunk and then usually dyed), sometimes using a water-powered mill or trampled underfoot. The cloth was then sheared and brushed, perhaps many times, in order to produce a very fine, smooth cloth.

? ? ? ? ? 許多農(nóng)婦在家里紡線，然后賣給織工，織工通常是男性。雖然有些婦女會繼續(xù)在織布機上織布，但到了中世紀(jì)晚期，織布通常是由熟練的織工使用水平織布機在更大的范圍內(nèi)進行，這不是農(nóng)民所能承受的。英格蘭和威爾士的羊毛在中世紀(jì)享有很高的聲譽，而佛蘭德斯則成為羊毛布的主要生產(chǎn)中心。羊毛經(jīng)過清洗以去除油脂，然后進行干燥、打漿、分揀和梳理。然后，羊毛被紡出來，在織布機上加工成粗布，接下來被填滿（浸泡、收縮，然后通常被染色），有時使用水力磨坊或在腳下踐踏。然后對布進行剪切和刷洗，也許會進行多次加工，以便生產(chǎn)出非常精細、光滑的布。

建?筑工

One thing everyone needed was a roof over their heads. As societies became more prosperous, towns grew in size and construction techniques improved from the 13th century, so many people looked for better and more substantial homes to live in. Prosperous peasants looked to improve on their traditional mud and timber cottages while lords were looking to impress with manor houses that might look like the castle most of them could not afford. Consequently, there developed many specialised trades for each facet of any building's construction such as masons, tilers, carpenters, thatchers, glassmakers and plasterers. Carpenters, especially, were involved in the subsequent upkeep of houses and other structures such as barns, granaries, churches and bridges.

? ? ? ? ? 每個人都需要一棟帶頂?shù)募?。隨著社會變得更加繁榮，城鎮(zhèn)規(guī)模不斷擴大，建筑技術(shù)也從13世紀(jì)開始得到改善，因此許多人都在尋找更好、更堅固的房屋來居住。富裕的農(nóng)民希望改善他們傳統(tǒng)的泥土和木頭小屋，而領(lǐng)主們則希望用看起來像城堡一樣的莊園來打動他們，但他們中的大多數(shù)人都負擔(dān)不起。因此，在建筑的每個方面都發(fā)展了許多專門的行業(yè)，如泥瓦匠、瓦工、木匠、茅草匠、玻璃匠和抹灰工。特別是木匠，他們參與居住房屋和其他建筑的后續(xù)維護，如谷倉、糧倉、教堂和橋梁。

At the top of the building profession were the master builder and master mason, both of whom needed to be skilled in mathematics and geometry to produce their scale models and parchment plans upon which lesser workers would depend in order to make the real-life pieces of a building fit together properly. As they rarely lifted a finger themselves, they also needed to be good managers of the large team of skilled workers under their command on specific projects, especially the big ones like building a castle or church.

? ? ? ? ? 在建筑行業(yè)的頂端是建筑大師和泥瓦匠大師，他們都需要精通數(shù)學(xué)和幾何學(xué)，以制作比例模型和在羊皮紙作出施工計劃，而較少的工人將依靠這些模型和計劃，以使現(xiàn)實生活中的建筑碎片正確地組合起來。由于他們很少自己動手，所以他們還需要在具體項目上成為他們手下大批熟練工人的良好管理者，特別是像建造城堡或教堂這樣的大項目。

城市貿(mào)易商

Larger towns and cities, of course, had especially numerous and diverse tradespeople. There were tailors, drapers, dyers, saddlers, furriers, chandlers, tanners, armourers, sword makers, parchment makers, basket-weavers, goldsmiths, silversmiths and, by far the biggest industry sector, all manner of food sellers. Many of these trades might be grouped together in parts of a city so that guilds could better regulate their members or to attract visitors such as by the city gates or because a particular area had a tradition for one trade (like Notre-Dame in Paris had for books, which it still has today).

? ? ? ? ? 當(dāng)然，較大城鎮(zhèn)和城市有特別多的貿(mào)易者。有裁縫、窗簾、染色師、馬鞍工、毛皮匠、皮匠、制革師、裝甲師、制劍師、羊皮紙制造商、織籃師、金匠、銀匠以及迄今為止最大的行業(yè)部門——各種形式的食品銷售商。這些行業(yè)中，許多行業(yè)可能被集中在一個城市的某些地方，以便行會能夠更好地管理他們的成員，或吸引游客，如在城門邊，或因為一個特定的區(qū)域有一個行業(yè)的傳統(tǒng)（如巴黎圣母院的書籍，至今仍然有售賣）。

?醫(yī)? ? ?生

Medieval doctors, at least in the later Middle Ages, learnt their expertise at a university and enjoyed a high status but their practical role in society was limited to diagnosis and prescription. A patient was actually treated by a surgeon and given medicine which was prepared by an apothecary, both of whom were regarded as tradesmen because they had learnt their skills via the system of apprenticeship. As a surgeon could be expensive, many of the poorer class took their minor physical problems to a much cheaper option; the local barber. When not cutting hair and trimming moustaches, a barber performed minor surgeries and also pulled teeth. The poor might also seek the skills of a peddler of folk medicine who dispensed advise and lotions based on traditional and natural remedies which, despite their dubious origins, must have worked to some degree in order for them to keep practising throughout the Middle Ages.

? ? ? ? ? ?中世紀(jì)的醫(yī)生，至少在中世紀(jì)后期，在大學(xué)里學(xué)習(xí)專業(yè)知識，享有很高的地位，但他們在社會中的實際作用僅限于診斷和開藥。病人實際上是由外科醫(yī)生治療，并由藥劑師配藥，這兩人都被視為商人，因為他們是通過學(xué)徒制度學(xué)習(xí)技能的。由于外科醫(yī)生的費用很高，許多貧困階層的人把他們身體上的小問題交給一個更便宜的選擇：當(dāng)?shù)氐睦戆l(fā)師。在不剪頭發(fā)和修剪胡子的時候，理發(fā)師會做小手術(shù)，也會拔牙。窮人也可能尋求民間醫(yī)藥小販，他們根據(jù)傳統(tǒng)和自然療法提供建議和藥水，盡管這些藥水的來源很可疑，但一定在某種程度上是有效的，因此他們在整個中世紀(jì)都能繼續(xù)行醫(yī)。