The spices clove, nutmeg, and mace originated on only a handful of tiny islands in the Indonesian archipelago but came to have a dramatic, far-reaching impact on world trade. In antiquity, they became popular in the medicines of India and China, and they were a major component of European cuisine in the medieval period. European countries fought mightily for control of the spice trade.

? ? ? ? ? 丁香、肉豆蔻種子和肉豆蔻花起源于印度尼西亞群島中的少數(shù)幾個小島，但它們對世界貿(mào)易產(chǎn)生了巨大、深遠的影響。在古代，這些香料在印度和中國的藥物中很受歡迎；在中世紀時期，它們是歐洲菜肴的主要組成部分。歐洲國家為控制香料貿(mào)易進行了激烈的競爭。

丁香、肉豆蔻種子與肉豆蔻皮（花）

The name clove refers to the dried, unopened buds of the evergreen tree, Syzygium caryophyllata in the myrtle family. Cloves were native to only five tiny, volcanic islands in the East Indian Archipelago: Ternate, Matir, Tidore, Makian, and Bacan, all belonging to the Maluku Islands or the Moluccas.

? ? ? ? ? “丁香”這個名字是指桃金娘科常綠樹丁香屬的干燥、未開的花蕾。丁香原產(chǎn)于東印度群島的五個小火山島。Ternate（特爾納特島，又譯德那第）、Matir、Tidore（蒂多爾）、Makian（馬基安島）和Bacan（巴干群島），都屬于馬魯古群島（又譯摩鹿加群島）。

The nutmegs are the dark reddish-brown seeds within the fruits of Myristica fragrans, of the Myristicaceae family. These seeds are surrounded by a deep red, fleshy net-like membrane, or aril, which is the mace. The nutmeg tree was native to sheltered valleys on the hot, tropical Banda Islands in the Maluku region of Indonesia.

? ? ? ? ? nutmeg是肉豆蔻科植物肉豆蔻肉果的深紅棕色種子。這些種子被一層深紅色、肉質(zhì)的網(wǎng)狀膜或假種皮所包圍，這就是mace（肉豆蔻皮/花）。肉豆蔻樹原產(chǎn)于印度尼西亞摩鹿加地區(qū)炎熱的熱帶班達群島的隱蔽山谷中。

丁香在古代的地位

The first mention of clove is in the Chinese literature of the Han period, around the 3rd century BCE. The spice called hi-sho-hiang ("bird’s tongue") was first used as a breath freshener; officers of the court were required to place cloves in their mouth before discussions with their sovereign. Cloves were used much more widely in medicines than food preparation. They were considered an internal warming herb, which helped dispel cold and warm the body. They were used as tonics and stimulants and were prescribed as a digestive aid and antiseptic. Cloves were used to treat a wide range of ailments including intestinal distress, impotence, diarrhea, vomiting, and cholera. They were made into a poultice to treat cracked nipples, scorpion stings, toothaches, and pretty much any abscess that caused pain.

? ? ? ? ? 大約在公元前3世紀，中國漢代的文獻第一次提到了丁香。這種被稱為hi-sho-hiang（"鳥舌"）的香料最早被用作口氣清新劑；宮廷官員在與君主討論之前必須將丁香放入口中。丁香在藥物中的應用比在食物中的應用要廣泛得多。它們被認為是一種熱性草藥，有助于驅(qū)散寒冷和溫暖身體。它們被用作補藥和興奮劑，并被作為消化輔助劑和防腐劑處方。丁香還可以用來治療廣泛的疾病，包括腸道不適、陽痿、腹瀉、嘔吐和霍亂。人們用丁香制成膏藥，用于治療乳頭破裂、蝎子蟄傷、牙痛和幾乎所有引起疼痛的膿腫。

Cloves also played an important role in ancient Indian society, although they arrived there several centuries later than in China. Cloves became popular in traditional Ayurvedic medicine and were used to treat a wide range of problems including colds, asthma, indigestion, vomiting, toothache, laryngitis, low blood pressure, and impotence. In the ancient Sanskrit text, Charaka Sa?hita (1st century CE), it is stated that "one who wants clean, fresh, fragrant breath must keep nutmegs and cloves in the mouth" (Dalby, 50).

? ? ? ? ? 丁香在古代印度社會中也扮演著重要角色，盡管它們比中國晚了幾個世紀到達那里。丁香在傳統(tǒng)的阿育吠陀醫(yī)學中很受歡迎，被用來治療各種問題，包括感冒、哮喘、消化不良、嘔吐、牙痛、喉炎、低血壓和陽痿。在古老的梵文文獻《Charaka Sa?hita》（公元1世紀）中指出，"想要干凈、新鮮、芬芳的口氣的人必須在口中保留肉豆蔻和丁香"（Dalby，50）。

The Roman writer Pliny the Elder (23-79 CE) was the first to describe cloves in the West in his Natural History (70 CE) where he recorded that "there is also in India a grain resembling that of pepper but larger and more fragile, called caryophyllom, which is reported to grow on the Indian lotus tree; it is imported here for the sake of its aroma". Roman emperor Constantine the Great (r. 306-337 CE) is said to have presented Saint Silvester, the bishop of Rome (314-335 CE), with gold and silver vessels filled with incense and spices, including 150 pounds (68 kg) of cloves. The Greek physician Paul of Aegina wrote in the 5th century CE: "It is of the nature of a flower of some tree, woody, black, almost as thick as a finger; reputed aromatic, sour, bitterish, hot and dry in the third degree; excellent in relishes and other prescriptions" (Dalby, 50). In his 6th-century CE Twelve Books on Medicine, the eminent Byzantine physician Alexander of Tralles recommended cloves for seasickness, gout, and appetite stimulation.

? ? ? ? ? 羅馬作家老普林尼（公元23-79年）在他的《自然史》（公元70年）中首次描述了西方的丁香，他記錄說："在印度也有一種類似于胡椒的谷物，但更大更脆弱，叫做康乃馨（香石竹），據(jù)說它生長在印度的蓮花樹上；人們進口它是為了它的香氣。" 據(jù)說羅馬皇帝君士坦丁大帝（公元306-337年）向羅馬主教圣西爾維斯特（公元314-335年）贈送了裝滿香和香料的金銀器皿，包括150磅（68公斤）的丁香。希臘醫(yī)生埃吉納（Aegina）的保羅（Paul）（保盧斯·阿金塔）在公元5世紀寫道："它的性質(zhì)是某種樹的花，木質(zhì)，黑色，幾乎和手指一樣粗；它是芳香的，酸的，苦的，熱的，三度干；在調(diào)味品和其他處方中非常好"（Dalby, 50）。在公元6世紀的《醫(yī)學十二書》中，著名的拜占庭醫(yī)生Alexander of Tralles（亞歷山大·奧法·特拉勒斯）推薦丁香用于暈船、痛風和刺激食欲。

古代的肉豆蔻種子和肉豆蔻花（皮）

Nutmeg and mace are frequently mentioned in the oldest scriptures of Hinduism in India, the Vedas, composed between 1500 and 1000 BCE. Nutmeg was recommended for improved digestion and was prescribed for headache, neural problems, fevers from colds, bad breath, and digestive problems. Later Indian texts described nutmeg as an important medicine for cardiac complaints, consumption, asthma, toothaches, dysentery, flatulence, and rheumatism.

? ? ? ? ? 肉豆蔻種子和肉豆蔻皮在印度最古老的經(jīng)文《吠陀》中經(jīng)常被提及，該經(jīng)文是在公元前1500年至1000年之間創(chuàng)作的。肉豆蔻被推薦用于改善消化系統(tǒng)，并用于治療頭痛、神經(jīng)問題、感冒發(fā)燒、口臭和消化系統(tǒng)問題。后來的印度文獻將肉豆蔻描述為治療心臟病、肺病、哮喘、牙痛、痢疾、脹氣和風濕的重要藥物。

Nutmeg and mace’s arrival in China was much later than in India; the first reference of what could have been nutmeg does not appear until the 3rd century CE in Ji Han’s Nanfang Caomu Zhuang (Record of Southern Plants and Trees). In it, he mentions a fragrant spice that comes from a tree whose flowers are colored like a lotus. Nutmeg is not commonly mentioned in the Chinese literature until the 8th century when it is used to treat diarrhea, dysentery, abdominal pain and bloating, reduced appetite, and indigestion.

? ? ? ? ? 肉豆蔻種子和肉豆蔻花到達中國的時間比印度晚得多；直到公元3世紀，在嵇含的《南方草木狀》（南方植物和樹種記錄）中才第一次提到可能是肉豆蔻的東西。他在書中提到了一種芳香的香料，它來自一種花色如蓮花的樹木。肉豆蔻在中國文獻中不常被提及，到了8世紀，它被用來治療腹瀉、痢疾、腹痛和腹脹、食欲下降和消化不良。

Nutmeg and mace were largely unknown to the West until the 5h or 6th century CE. Pliny was the first to write about a tree he called comacum, which had a fragrant nut, but it is not certain if he was really referring to nutmeg. The 1st-century CE Greek physician Dioscorides also vaguely refers to a red bark of unknown origin called macir. The first clear references to nutmeg and mace are not found until the Byzantine medical texts of the 6th century, which refer to a red bark, macis (mace), and a musky nut, nux muscata (nutmeg).

? ? ? ? ? 肉豆蔻種子和肉豆蔻花在很大程度上不為西方所知，直到公元5世紀或6世紀。普林尼是第一個寫到一種他稱之為comacum樹的人，這種樹的堅果很香，但不能確定它是否真的指的是肉豆蔻。公元1世紀的希臘醫(yī)生Dioscorides也含糊地提到了一種叫做macir的紅色樹皮，其來源不明。直到6世紀的拜占庭醫(yī)學文獻才首次明確提到肉豆蔻種子和肉豆蔻皮（花），其中提到了一種紅色樹皮macis（肉豆蔻皮）和一種麝香型堅果nux muscata（肉豆蔻種子）。

阿拉伯醫(yī)學和美食中的肉豆蔻種子、肉豆蔻花和丁香

The study of medicine was a major focus of Islamic scholars. During the 9th century and into the 10th, Harun al-Rashid of the Abbasid Caliphate and his son collected works of Greek medicine and other scientific texts from throughout the civilized world. These were taken to the Grand Library of Baghdad, the “House of Wisdom”, where the entire body of Greek medical texts, including all the works of Galen, Oribasius, Paul of Aegina, Hippocrates, and Dios-corides, were translated into Arabic. Based on their studies, Muslim physicians believed that sickness was the result of bodily imbalances, and these imbalances could be restored if the diet consisted of the right balance of herbs and spices including nutmeg and clove. These spices played a prominent role in the 9th-century medical texts written by the famous Arab physician, Isaac ibn Amran. His works, written in Arabic and translated into Hebrew, Latin, and Spanish, became the foundation of the medical curriculum of medieval Europe.

? ? ? ? ? ?醫(yī)學研究是伊斯蘭學者的主要焦點之一。在9世紀和10世紀，阿拔斯王朝哈里發(fā)的哈倫·拉希德和他的兒子從整個文明世界收集希臘醫(yī)學作品和其他科學文獻。這些作品被帶到巴格達的大圖書館，即 "智慧之家"。在那里，所有的希臘醫(yī)學文獻，包括蓋倫、奧芮培錫阿斯、保盧斯·阿金塔、希波克拉底和迪奧斯科里德斯的所有作品，都被翻譯成了阿拉伯語。根據(jù)研究，穆斯林醫(yī)生認為，疾病是身體失衡的結(jié)果，如果飲食中包括正確平衡的草藥和香料，如肉豆蔻和丁香，這些失衡是可以恢復的。這些香料在9世紀阿拉伯名醫(yī)伊沙克·伊本·阿姆蘭（Isaac ibn Amran）撰寫的醫(yī)學文獻中發(fā)揮了突出作用。他的作品以阿拉伯語寫成，并翻譯成希伯來語、拉丁語和西班牙語，成為中世紀歐洲醫(yī)學課程的基礎。

The Arabs were the first to use cloves and nutmeg extensively in food preparation. In fact, spices were greatly appreciated all across the Middle East for their fragrance and medicinal properties, as well as for their enhancement of flavor in food. Herodotus, the ancient Greek writer, geographer, and historian, wrote in the 5th century BCE of the spices of Arabia that “the whole country is scented with them, and exhales an odor marvelously sweet” (The Histories, Book III). The Iraqi Ibn Sayyar al-Warrag listed cloves repeatedly in his 10th-century Kitab al-Tabikh (The Book of Cookery), the earliest known Arabic cookbook. In his highly regarded Al-Qanun fi al-Tib (The Canon of Medicine, 1025), Ibn Sina recommended “three-eighths of a dram of nutmeg with a small quantity of quince-juice” for “weakness of the stomach,” and he described nutmeg as a potent anesthetic concoction. Cloves and nutmeg played a dominant role in the popular, 13th-century Syrian cookbook Kitab al-Wuslah ila l-Habib and in an anonymous Andalusian cookbook.

? ? ? ? ? 阿拉伯人是第一個在食物制作中廣泛使用丁香和肉豆蔻的人。事實上，在整個中東地區(qū)，香料因其香味和藥用價值，以及對食物風味的提升而大受贊賞。古希臘作家、地理學家和歷史學家希羅多德在公元前5世紀談到阿拉伯的香料時寫道："整個國家都有香料的香味，并散發(fā)出令人驚嘆的甜味"（《歷史》第三冊）。伊拉克人伊本·塞亞爾·瓦拉克（Ibn Sayyar al-Warrag）在其10世紀的Kitab al-Tabikh（《烹飪之書》）中多次提到丁香，這是已知的最早的阿拉伯烹飪書。伊本·西納在其備受推崇的Al-Qanun fi al-Tib（《藥典》，1025年）中建議用 "八分之三的肉豆蔻加少量榅桲汁 "治療 "胃病"，他還將肉豆蔻描述為一種有效的麻醉劑混合物。丁香和肉豆蔻在13世紀流行的敘利亞烹飪書《Kitab al-Wuslah ila l-Habib》和一本匿名的安達盧西亞烹飪書中發(fā)揮了主導作用。

歐洲烹飪中的肉豆蔻種子、肉豆蔻花和丁香

Before about the 12th century, medical practice in Europe was far behind the Muslims as there was little research being conducted, and because the medieval church considered disease a punishment from God, doctors could do little for their patients. It was not until new translations, observations, and methods of the Islamic world became available that western medicine began to move forward. Insights and methods from Islamic doctors brought many new advances to European medicine, including the widespread treatment of disease with spices.

? ? ? ? ? 大約在12世紀之前，歐洲的醫(yī)療實踐遠遠落后于穆斯林，因為當時的研究很少，而且由于中世紀的教會認為疾病是上帝的懲罰，醫(yī)生對病人幾乎無能為力。直到有了伊斯蘭世界的新譯本、觀察和方法，西方醫(yī)學才開始向前發(fā)展。伊斯蘭醫(yī)生的見解和方法給歐洲醫(yī)學帶來了許多新的進步，包括廣泛使用香料治療疾病。

It is a bit hazy when nutmeg and cloves moved from the medicine cabinet into European cuisine, although their purported 'hot' and 'humid' properties were recommended for centuries in wintertime meals, according to the ancient teachings of Galen. In 716, the Frankish king Chilperic II is known to have granted the monks of Corbie Monastery a toll exception on their annual spice allotment of 30 pounds pepper, five of cinnamon, and two of cloves. There are records from the medieval monastery of St Gall in Switzerland that monks used cloves to season their fasting fish in the 9th century. In the 10th century, Andalusian traveler Ibrahim ibn Ya’qub noted that the burghers of Mainz (Germany) used cloves to season their food. When the king and queen of Scotland celebrated the Feast of the Assumption in 1256, their food was spiced with 50 pounds each of ginger, pepper, and cinnamon, 4 pounds of cloves, and 2 pounds each of nutmeg and mace. At the marriage of the Duke of Bavaria-Landshut in 1476, the banquets required 205 pounds of cinnamon, 286 pounds of ginger, and 85 pounds of nutmeg.

? ? ? ? ? 肉豆蔻和丁香是何時從藥箱中進入歐洲菜肴的，這一點有些模糊，盡管根據(jù)蓋倫的古老教義，它們所謂的 "熱 "和 "濕 "特性在冬季飲食中被推薦了幾個世紀。據(jù)了解，716年，法蘭克國王希爾佩里克二世授予科爾比修道院的僧侶們每年30磅胡椒、5磅肉桂和2磅丁香的香料分配權(quán)，使他們可以例外收費。瑞士圣加爾中世紀修道院的記錄顯示，9世紀時，僧侶們用丁香來調(diào)味他們的齋菜魚。10世紀，安達盧西亞旅行家易卜拉欣·伊本·雅庫布（Ibrahim ibn Ya'qub）指出，美因茨（德國）的居民用丁香來調(diào)味。當蘇格蘭國王和王后在1256年慶祝圣母升天節(jié)時，他們的食物用生姜、胡椒和肉桂各50磅，丁香4磅，肉豆蔻和肉豆蔻各2磅來調(diào)味。在1476年巴伐利亞-蘭茨胡特公爵的婚禮上，宴會消耗了205磅肉桂、286磅姜和85磅肉豆蔻。

Because of their distant supply lines, the spices were very costly in the Early and High Middle Ages, which restricted them to the wealthy and added greatly to their desirability. However, as the 11th and 12th centuries progressed, there was a steady rise in the popularity of Asian spices, stimulated by the Crusades and those who returned enchanted by the rich cuisine of Constantinople. The Venetians saw a window of opportunity and began to supply the European market with much greater quantities of spice. As Turner comments:

[By the late 12th century,] medieval cooks dreamed up hundreds of different applications, leaving practically no types of food without spice. There were rich and spicey sauces for meat and fish, based on an almost limitless number of combinations of cloves, nutmeg, cinnamon, mace, pepper, and other spices, ground and mixed in with a host of locally grown herbs and aromatics. (105)

? ? ? ? ? 由于香料供應線遙遠，香料在中世紀非常昂貴，這使它們只限于富人使用，并大大增加了香料的吸引力。然而，隨著11世紀和12世紀的發(fā)展，在十字軍東征和那些被君士坦丁堡豐富美食所吸引的人們的刺激下，亞洲香料的受歡迎程度穩(wěn)步上升。威尼斯人看到了一個致富機會之窗，開始向歐洲市場供應數(shù)量更多的香料。正如特納所評論的那樣：

? ? ? ? ? [到12世紀末]，中世紀的廚師們想出了數(shù)百種不同的香料應用，幾乎沒有一種菜譜是不包含香料的。在丁香、肉豆蔻、肉桂、肉豆蔻皮、胡椒和其他香料無限組合的基礎上，有豐富和辛辣的肉類和魚類醬汁，研磨后與當?shù)胤N植的大量草藥和芳香劑混合在一起。(105)

The popularity of spices in both cuisine and medicine reached its historical peak during the late Middle Ages in Europe. Food in medieval households was highly processed and richly spiced. Uncooked food was rarely eaten, even vegetables and fruit. The spices were used to season all types of food including meat, fish, soups, sweet dishes, and wine. It even became popular in medieval banquets to pass around a spice platter from which guests could choose extra seasonings for their already richly accented meals. The noted expert on medieval gastronomy, Paul Freedman, tells us that "spices were omnipresent in medieval gastronomy" and "something on the order of 75% of medieval recipes involves spices" (50).

? ? ? ? ? 香料在烹飪和醫(yī)藥方面的普及在歐洲中世紀晚期達到了歷史的高峰。中世紀家庭的食物是高度加工的，并參有豐富的香料。人們很少吃未煮熟的食物，甚至蔬菜和水果也不例外。香料被用來調(diào)味所有類型的食物，包括肉、魚、湯、甜菜和酒。在中世紀的宴會上，甚至還流行傳閱香料拼盤，客人們可以從中選擇額外的調(diào)味品，以滿足他們本已經(jīng)很豐富的膳食。著名的中世紀美食專家保羅·弗里德曼告訴我們，"香料在中世紀美食中無處不在"，"大約有75%的中世紀食譜涉及香料"（50）。

早期的肉豆蔻種子、肉豆蔻花和丁香貿(mào)易

Long before nutmeg, mace, and cloves became important to the outside world’s palates and medicines, there was vigorous interisland trade among the Spice Islands and the outer islands of Halmahera, Seram, Kei, and Aru. This trade was centered on the sago palm (Metroxylon sagu), which was the primary food source of the small, volcanic Maluku and Banda Islands, where little else grew but coconut and spices. The Bandanese became the undisputed leaders of the interisland trade of sago for spices, traveling in fleets of kora-kora canoes, propelled by rowers on platforms of bamboo lashed five feet away on either side of the canoe proper.

? ? ? ? ? 早在肉豆蔻、肉豆蔻皮和丁香對外部世界的口味和藥物變得重要之前，香料群島和哈爾馬赫拉（賈伊洛洛）、塞蘭島、卡伊群島和阿魯群島等外島之間就存在著活躍的島際貿(mào)易。這種貿(mào)易的中心是西米（Metroxylon sagu），它是馬魯古島和班達島這些小火山島民的主要食物來源，那里除了椰子和香料外幾乎沒有其他植物生長。班達人成為島際間以西谷椰子換取香料貿(mào)易的無可爭議的領導者，他們乘坐科拉科拉獨木舟船，由劃手在獨木舟兩側(cè)五英尺外的竹制平臺上推動。

The sago palm was the staple food of hundreds of thousands of people, but it received little attention from the outside world until 1869, when the great Victorian naturalist and Darwin’s contemporary, Alfred Russel Wallace (1823-1913), described its characteristics at length in his epic The Malay Archipelago. About its taste, Wallace wrote:

? ? ? ? ? The hot cakes are very nice with butter, and when made with the addition of a little sugar and grated cocoa-nut are quite a delicacy. They are soft, and something like corn-flour cakes, but have a slight characteristic flavor which is lost in the refined sago we use in this country …. They were my daily substitute for bread with my coffee. (van Wyhe, 514)

? ? ? ? ? 西米是數(shù)十萬人的主食，但它很少受到外界的關注，直到1869年，偉大的維多利亞時代的自然學家和達爾文的同代人阿爾弗雷德·拉塞爾·華萊士（1823-1913）在其作品《馬來群島》中詳細描述了它的特點。關于它的味道，華萊士寫道：

? ? ? ? ? 熱的蛋糕與黃油一起吃非常好，如果再加上一點糖和磨碎的可可果仁，那就相當美味了。它們很軟，有點像玉米面的蛋糕，但有一點特有的味道，我們在這個國家使用的精制西米就沒有這種味道....。它們是我每天喝咖啡時的面包替代品。(van Wyhe, 514)

Even with this heavy internal trading of spice for sago palm, the source of nutmeg and clove remained a mystery to the outside world for almost a millennium. Even the Arabians and Indians who sailed all across the Indian Ocean were long clueless about their origin. In the year 1000, the Arabic writer Ibrahim Ibn Wasif-Shah in his Summary of Marvels made this fanciful description about cloves and its source:

? ? ?… somewhere near India is the island containing the Valley of Cloves. No merchants or sailors have ever been to the valley or have ever seen the kind of tree that produces cloves: its fruit they say is sold by genies. The sailors arrive at the island, place their items of merchandise on the shore, and return to their ship. Next morning, they find, beside each item, a quantity of cloves.

? ? ?One man claimed to have begun to explore the island. He saw people who were yellow in color, beardless, dressed like women, with long hair, but they hid as he came near. After waiting a little, the merchants came back to the shore where they had left their merchandise, but this time they found no cloves, and they realized that this had happened because of the man who had seen the islanders. After some years absence, the merchants tried again and were able to revert back to the original system of trading.

? ? ?The cloves are said to be pleasant to the taste when they are fresh. The islanders feed on them, and they never fall ill or grow old. It is also said that they dress in the leaves of a tree that grows only on that island and is unknown to other people. (Dalby, 50-51)

? ? ? ? ? 即使在這種大量的內(nèi)部香料交易中，肉豆蔻和丁香的來源對外部世界來說仍然是個謎，幾乎有一千年之久。即使是航行在印度洋各地的阿拉伯人和印度人也對它們的來源長期沒有頭緒。在1000年，阿拉伯作家Ibrahim Ibn Wasif-Shah在他的《奇跡摘要》中對丁香和它的來源做了這樣的幻想描述。

? ? ?......在印度附近的某個地方有一個包含丁香谷的島嶼。沒有商人或水手去過這個山谷，也沒有人見過生產(chǎn)丁香的那種樹：他們說它的果實是由精靈出售的。水手們到達該島，把他們的商品放在岸邊，然后回到他們的船上。第二天早上，他們發(fā)現(xiàn)在每件商品旁邊都有一定數(shù)量的丁香。

? ? ?有一個人聲稱已經(jīng)開始探索該島。他看到一些人是黃色的，沒有胡子，穿得像女人，有長頭發(fā)，但當他走近時，他們就躲起來了。等了一會兒，商人們又回到了他們留下貨物的岸邊，但這次他們沒有發(fā)現(xiàn)丁香，他們意識到這是因為那個看到島民的人而發(fā)生的。在離開幾年后，商人們再次嘗試，并能恢復到原來的貿(mào)易體系。

? ? ? 據(jù)說，丁香在新鮮時味道很好。島民們以丁香為食，他們從不生病或變老。還有人說，他們用一種只生長在該島的樹葉穿衣，其他民族不知道。(達爾比，50-51)

The entry of the nutmeg and cloves into world trade was long dependent on Malay and Indonesian sailors, with the Javanese being the primary players. As the 1st century CE dawned, three separate trading spheres were operating in the Indian Ocean and the South China Sea:

? ? ?Sailors from India and Sri Lanka were traveling to and from Bali, Java, and Sumatra across the Bay of Bengal.

? ? ?Indonesian seafarers were conducting trade within the center of the vast archipelago itself.

? ? ?Indonesians reached out into Southeast Asia and China.

? ? ? ? ? 肉豆蔻和丁香進入世界貿(mào)易，長期以來依賴于馬來和印度尼西亞的水手，其中爪哇人是主要參與者。隨著公元1世紀的到來，在印度洋和中國南海有三個獨立的貿(mào)易圈在運作：

? ? ?來自印度和斯里蘭卡的水手穿越孟加拉灣，來往于巴厘島、爪哇島和蘇門答臘島。

? ? ?印度尼西亞的海員在這個巨大的群島中心進行貿(mào)易。

? ? ?印度尼西亞人將觸角伸向東南亞和中國。

Trade emporiums arose in Java and Sumatra, where Indian and later Arabian sailors could access all the spices and commodities of Southeast Asia and distribute them across the Indian Ocean. The Indian and Arabian ships typically sailed only as far east as the Strait of Malacca, and Indonesian ships made the other two journeys to eastern Indonesia and China. It was not until the High Middle Ages that Arabian and Indian sailors themselves knew the true home of the spices, clove, nutmeg, and mace.

? ? ? ? ? 爪哇島和蘇門答臘島出現(xiàn)了貿(mào)易帝國，印度和后來的阿拉伯水手可以在那里獲得東南亞的所有香料和商品，并將它們分銷到印度洋沿岸。印度和阿拉伯的船只通常只向東航行到馬六甲海峽，而印度尼西亞的船只則進行另外兩次航行，前往印度尼西亞東部和中國。直到中世紀晚期，阿拉伯和印度水手自己才知道香料、丁香、肉豆蔻種子和肉豆蔻皮（花）的真正歸宿。

參考書目：

Anonymous. The Annotated Malay Archipelago by Alfred Russel Wallace.. NUS Press, 2021.

Arndt, A. . "The flavors of Arabia ." Saudi Aramco World, 39/ 1988.

Dalby, Andrew. Dangerous Tastes. British Museum Press, 2000.

Ellen, R.F. "Sago subsistence and the trade in spices: a provisional model of ecological succession and imbalance in Moluccan history." Social and Ecological Systems, edited by Burnham, P.C. and Ellen, R.F . Academic Press, New York, 1979, 43–74.

Martinelli, Candida. The Anonymous Andalusian Cookbook. CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform, 2012.

Pak, R. . "China and the trade in cloves, circa 960–1435." Journal of the American Oriental Society, 113/ 1993, pp. 1-13.

Perry, Charles & Roden, Claudia. Scents and Flavors. NYU Press, 2020.

Rosengarten, F. The Book of Spices. Pyramid Books, 1969.

Spice Migrations: ClovesAccessed 7 Oct 2021.

Turner, Jack. Spice. Vintage, 2005.

Weil, A.T. . "Nutmeg as a narcotic." Economic Botany , 19/3/1965, pp. 194–217.

原文作者：James F. Hancock

? ? ? ? ? James F. Hancock是一名自由撰稿人，密歇根州立大學的名譽教授。他特別關注的方向是作物進化和貿(mào)易史。他的書包括《香料、香味和絲綢》（CABI），以及《種植園作物》（Routledge）。

原文網(wǎng)址：https://www.worldhistory.org/article/1849/the-early-history-of-clove-nutmeg--mace/

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