Late Antiquity 300-700 A.D.,

Late or Classical Antiquity: a concept emerged in 14th and 15th centuries among the scholars of Italian Renaissance who imagined themselves as looking back to the world; they invented a tripartite division of history, ancient, medieval, and modern.

Edward Gibbon 1737-1794

The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire (1776)

• Internal and external forces
• Immoderate greatness, grave internal problems of Roman Empire
• Barbarism (barbarian invasion) and superstition (Christianity) brought low the Roman Empire.

Now, historians speak of the transformation of the Roman world, of continuity and change working in tandem, of slow sometimes almost imperceptible alterations in age-old patterns of life. We don't think in terms of abrupt direct calamitous change.

Pax Romana 31 B.C. - 180 A.D.

• from 31 B.C. when Octavian became Augustus Caesar to the death of Marcus Aurelius in 180 A.D.

The crisis of the 3rd Century 180-284 A.D.

• from the death of Marcus Aurelius in 180 A.D. to until the advent of the Emperor Diocletian in 284 A.D.

1. Civil war, usurpations, violent transfers of power (the contradiction implicit in the Principate; a military dictatorship masquerading as a magistracy; the army was the power behind the throne)
2. During the course of the 3rd century, the Roman empire began shrinking, subsequent to the annexation of Dacia, roughly Romania by Emperor Trajan, and began to face foes who struck at its long frontiers unpredictably.
3. The Roman economy was spiraling into inflation.
4. A lack of confidence; a sense of gloom and dread

Diocletian and Constantine addressed many of the key issues of the 3rd Century with prudent reforms and they put Roman Empire on sound footings. Nevertheless, they changed the empire fundamentally. The Roman Empire internally managed its own transformation.

Diocletian Ruled 284-305

Diocletian's Reforms:

-1. 293 A.D.; The "Tetrarchy": rule by four (Tetra+archos)

• Diocletian chooses a colleague: "Augustus"
• Each colleague is to choose a subordinate official: "Caesar"
• aimed for orderly and stable succession of power

-2. Reorganized the provincial administration

• More than doubled the number of provinces

-3. Dramatically increased the size of the imperial administration

• A few hundred men to 30-40,000 people

-4. A new administrative structure

• Grouped provinces into prefectures
• Divided prefectures into diocese (a district of which a bishop is responsible)
• Prefectures governed by Praetorian Prefects and Masters of the Soldiers

-5. Dramatically increased the size of the Roman army

-6. Issued edicts freezing wages, prices, and occupations (didn't work as expected which happed numerous times throughout history)

-7. Accentuated the third century trend toward a more despotic form of rule (pompous titles, elaborate courtly ceremonial prostration)

The principate has given a way to the dominate.

• Principate: rule by the first citizen
• Dominate: rule by the dominus, the lord and master

Constantine Ruled 306-337

Constantine continued the military reformation.

• the adaptation and deployment of mobile field armies
• a change in military tactics from the idea of a relatively static line of defense to the notion of defense in depth
• frontiers were left to auxiliary forces to barbarians, allies and federates (treaty allies of Rome; foedus=treaty)

Constantine also addressed the economic problems.

• issued a new coin and money of account, Roman Solidus, 337 A.D.

Constantine refunded the old Athenian city of Byzantium and renamed itself Constantinople, therefore giving the East Roman Empire a capital of its own.