Heraldry, which is the use of inherited coats of arms and other symbols to show personal identity and family lineage, began on the mid-12th century CE battlefield as an easy means to identify medieval royalty and princes who were otherwise unrecognisable beneath their armour. By the 13th century CE, the practice had spread to nobles and knights who began to take pride in bearing the colours and arms of their family predecessors. Shields and tunics were particularly good places to display such symbols as lions, eagles, crosses, and geometric forms. As more and more knights employed coats of arms, they had to become more sophisticated to differentiate them, and the use of heraldry even spread to institutions such as universities, guilds, and towns. The practice still continues today, with many countries having official colleges of arms which assign individuals and institutions with new arms, and although the medieval knight has long since disappeared, the symbolism of heraldry remains a common sight from company logos to sports teams' badges.

? ? ? ? ? 紋章是使用繼承的紋飾和其他符號(hào)來(lái)顯示個(gè)人身份和家族血統(tǒng)的，它始于公元 12 世紀(jì)中葉的戰(zhàn)場(chǎng)，是識(shí)別中世紀(jì)皇室和王子的一種簡(jiǎn)便方法，因?yàn)樵诖┐骺椎那闆r下很難識(shí)別他們的身份。到了公元 13 世紀(jì)，這種做法已經(jīng)擴(kuò)展到貴族和騎士，他們開(kāi)始以穿戴家族前輩服飾顏色的服裝與佩戴家族紋章為榮。盾牌和長(zhǎng)袍是展示獅子、鷹、十字架和幾何形狀等符號(hào)的好地方。隨著越來(lái)越多的騎士采用紋章，紋章的制作也變得越來(lái)越復(fù)雜，以區(qū)別于其他紋章，紋章的使用甚至擴(kuò)展到了大學(xué)、行會(huì)和城鎮(zhèn)等一些機(jī)構(gòu)。雖然中世紀(jì)的騎士早已消失，但紋章的象征意義仍是商業(yè)標(biāo)志和運(yùn)動(dòng)隊(duì)徽章的常見(jiàn)元素。

Heralds傳令官

In the Middle Ages, heraldry was known as armoury (in Old French armoirie) and it was distinct from other and more ancient symbols worn by warriors on the battlefield because heraldic arms were both personal and hereditary. The name heraldry derives from the heralds, those officials responsible for listing and proclaiming ancient armorial bearings, especially at medieval tournaments. In the tournaments, a large number of knights either fought in mock cavalry battles or jousted against each other, and it was the heralds' job to advertise the coming of a tournament, indicate the rules under which they would be held, and pass on challenges issued by one knight to another.

? ? ? ? ? 在中世紀(jì)，紋章被稱為 armoury（古法語(yǔ) armoirie），它有別于戰(zhàn)士在戰(zhàn)場(chǎng)上佩戴的其他更古老的標(biāo)志，因?yàn)榧y章既是個(gè)人的，也是世襲的。紋章的名稱來(lái)源于傳令官，即負(fù)責(zé)列出和宣布古代紋章的官員，尤其是在中世紀(jì)的錦標(biāo)賽上。在錦標(biāo)賽中，眾多騎士或進(jìn)行模擬騎兵戰(zhàn)斗，或相互比武，而傳令官的職責(zé)就是宣傳錦標(biāo)賽的到來(lái)，說(shuō)明比賽規(guī)則，并將一位騎士向另一位騎士發(fā)出的挑戰(zhàn)書傳遞給對(duì)方。

It was, above all, the heralds' task to keep track of all the coats of arms and be able to identify which arms belonged to which name, perhaps listing them in a 'roll of arms'. By the 14th century CE, as rulers grasped that heralds with their extensive knowledge of who's who could be very useful sources of information on exactly who they were fighting against in battles, the status of heralds had steadily grown. The heralds wore a short tunic (tabard) which was embroidered with the arms of their master. Heralds also acted as messengers and were given safe passage during times of war. Eventually, heralds were organising such important events as weddings and funerals for royalty and the nobility. The specialised study of family arms known as heraldry was now fully established, and it had become a social science with its own vocabulary, history, rules, and social grades.

? ? ? ? ? 最重要的是，傳令官的任務(wù)是記錄所有的紋章，并能夠識(shí)別哪些紋章對(duì)應(yīng)哪個(gè)名字，并將它們列在“紋章卷”中。到了公元 14 世紀(jì)，隨著統(tǒng)治者認(rèn)識(shí)到傳令官的重要性，他們可以提供非常有用的信息，讓統(tǒng)治者及時(shí)知道他們?cè)趹?zhàn)斗中的對(duì)手到底是誰(shuí)，傳令官的地位逐漸提高。傳令官身穿繡有各自領(lǐng)主臂章的紋章戰(zhàn)袍。傳令官還充當(dāng)信使，在戰(zhàn)爭(zhēng)期間享有安全通行權(quán)。隨著時(shí)間的推移，傳令官還為皇室和貴族舉辦婚禮和葬禮等重要活動(dòng)。對(duì)紋章的專門研究（稱為紋章學(xué)）當(dāng)時(shí)已經(jīng)很成熟，它已成為一門社會(huì)科學(xué)，有自己的詞匯、歷史、規(guī)則和社會(huì)等級(jí)。

From the 15th century CE, heralds and apprentice heralds (pursuivants) were employed in colleges of arms, which settled disputes over conflicting arms and examined people's claims to have one in the first place. There arose a whole series of specific rules and conventions of heraldry, and it was these colleges of heralds who replaced the monarch as the power who granted or removed arms (due to cowardice or serious crimes). In England, for example, the function was and still is performed by the Royal College of Arms in, what is now appropriately enough, Queen Victoria Street, London. Such offices helped to sort out the confusion which had arisen from anyone, even peasants, creating their own coat of arms, and they accumulated detailed records of all the arms that had ever been created in their jurisdiction. The oldest known English roll of arms dates to c. 1244 CE. Currently housed in the British Library, it is a single sheet, painted on both sides by Mathew Paris and showing 75 coats of arms starting with the king's.

? ? ? ? ? 從公元 15 世紀(jì)開(kāi)始，紋章師和他們的學(xué)徒（pursuivants）在紋章學(xué)院工作，這些學(xué)院負(fù)責(zé)解決因相互沖突的紋章而產(chǎn)生的糾紛，并審查受審者是否具有資格獲得紋章。正是這些紋章學(xué)院取代了國(guó)王，成為授予或撤回紋章的權(quán)力機(jī)構(gòu)（針對(duì)怯懦或嚴(yán)重罪行）。例如，在英國(guó)，皇家紋章學(xué)院過(guò)去和現(xiàn)在都在履行這一職能，該學(xué)院位于倫敦維多利亞女王街。這些機(jī)構(gòu)幫助解決了因任何人，甚至是農(nóng)民，自己創(chuàng)造紋章而產(chǎn)生的混亂，并詳細(xì)記錄了在其管轄范圍內(nèi)產(chǎn)生的所有紋章。已知最古老的英國(guó)紋章卷可追溯到約公元 1244 年。目前收藏在大英圖書館，這是一張由馬修·帕里斯 (Mathew Paris)繪制的雙面紋章，從國(guó)王的紋章開(kāi)始，共展示了 75 個(gè)紋章。

紋章的演變

Medieval heraldry originated, then, sometime in the 12th century CE as individual warriors – first kings and then knights, too – sought to show off to their opponents exactly who they were up against hidden behind the armour. The idea was that when the enemy saw the three lions motif of Richard I or the black shield of the Black Prince, they would tremble with fear in the knowledge they were not about to fight just any old knight. The retainers of a certain knight and those knights who fought for a particular baron or other nobleman might also wear their master's arms and colours in special purpose liveries.

? ? ? ? ? 中世紀(jì)紋章起源于公元 12 世紀(jì)的某個(gè)時(shí)候，當(dāng)時(shí)的戰(zhàn)士們（首先是國(guó)王，然后是騎士）試圖向他們的對(duì)手展示隱藏在盔甲背后的真實(shí)身份。當(dāng)時(shí)的想法是，當(dāng)敵人看到理查德一世的三獅圖案或黑王子的黑色盾牌時(shí)，他們會(huì)因害怕而顫抖，因?yàn)樗麄冎雷约阂獙?duì)付的不是普通的騎士。某位騎士的家臣和那些為某位男爵或其他貴族作戰(zhàn)的騎士也可能會(huì)在特殊用途的鎧甲上佩戴其主人的紋章和穿戴其主人專屬顏色的服飾。

The next step was the children of celebrated warriors reusing the arms of their father and so the idea of a hereditary symbol developed with even daughters having the right to bear the arms of their parents. The first recognised instance of a coat of arms being passed on from one generation to another is that of Geoffrey, Count of Anjou (d. 1151 CE) and his grandson William Longespée ('Longsword', d. 1226 CE), who both have six lions rampant on the carved shield on their tombs.

? ? ? ? ? ?接下來(lái)發(fā)展到著名戰(zhàn)士的子女繼承他們父親的紋章，于是世襲標(biāo)志的概念發(fā)展起來(lái)，甚至女兒也有權(quán)使用父母的紋章。安茹伯爵杰弗里（Geoffrey，Count of Anjou，卒于公元 1151 年）和他的孫子第三代索爾茲伯里伯爵威廉·朗格斯佩（William Longespée，“長(zhǎng)劍”，卒于公元 1226 年）的墓上雕刻的盾牌上都有六只雄獅。

早期設(shè)計(jì)

The first symbols of identification did not have to be very complicated; indeed, simplicity and boldness made them all the more visible on the battlefield. The most obvious and striking place to carry identification was the shield, which might bear a single specific colour or two colours separated by a horizontal, vertical or diagonal line. Then, as more and more knights took up the trend, so arms had to become more varied if they were to keep their purpose of identification. As a result, not just colours but also symbols were adopted, for example, lions, eagles, tools, flowers, crosses, and stars were all popular choices. Symbols were sometimes stylised because they had to be recognisable from a distance and fit into the peculiar shape of a shield. In addition, certain colours were not mixed as that made the shield difficult to identify (e.g., black on purple and vice-versa)

? ? ? ? ? 最初的身份識(shí)別標(biāo)志并不需要非常復(fù)雜；事實(shí)上，簡(jiǎn)單、大膽的設(shè)計(jì)使它們?cè)趹?zhàn)場(chǎng)上更加醒目。最明顯、最醒目的識(shí)別標(biāo)志是盾牌，它可以繪有單一特定顏色或由水平、垂直或?qū)蔷€分隔的兩種顏色。后來(lái)，隨著越來(lái)越多的騎士加入到這一潮流中，紋章也必須變得更加多樣化，才能保持其識(shí)別目的。因此，不僅是顏色，符號(hào)也開(kāi)始被采用，例如，獅子、鷹、工具、花朵、十字架和星星都是很受歡迎的選擇。符號(hào)有時(shí)會(huì)被風(fēng)格化，因?yàn)樗鼈儽仨殢倪h(yuǎn)處就能辨認(rèn)出來(lái)，并適合盾牌的特殊形狀。此外，某些顏色不能混用，否則盾牌就難以辨認(rèn)（例如，黑底紫字，反之亦然）。

The next step was to create a unique combination of these designs with certain colours. An additional source of variety was when two families married and their coats of arms could be mixed (compounding) – from a simple half and half ensemble to including a miniature version in one corner of the other. There were also symbols added to coats of arms to indicate the offspring of a holder of arms, for example, a white line through the shield to indicate a first son who otherwise had the same arms as his father. Similarly, a coat of arms might carry an extra symbol to denote the holder was an illegitimate son of the original bearer of the arms.

? ? ? ? ? 下一步是將這些設(shè)計(jì)與特定的顏色進(jìn)行獨(dú)特的組合。當(dāng)兩個(gè)家族結(jié)婚時(shí)，他們的盾形紋章可以混合（復(fù)合）——從簡(jiǎn)單的一半一半的組合，到在另一個(gè)盾形紋章的一角加入一個(gè)微型版本，這也是盾形紋章多樣性的一個(gè)額外來(lái)源。紋章上還會(huì)添加一些符號(hào)來(lái)表示紋章持有者的后代，例如，盾牌上的一條白線表示長(zhǎng)子，而長(zhǎng)子的紋章與父親相同。同樣，盾形紋章也可能帶有額外的符號(hào)，表示持有者是原紋章持有者的私生子。

紋章的用途

Coats of arms could be repeated on other paraphernalia of warfare such as on the front and back of surcoats (a long sleeveless gown tied at the waist and worn over armour), pennons (triangular lance flags), horse coverings, banners, and hung below the trumpets of heralds. Although rare because it was expensive, some knights had their arms engraved on their armour. Coats of arms were not only useful in warfare, though. They were a good way to identify competitors in medieval tournaments and knights often had to hang their coat of arms outside the inn in which they were staying during the event. From this practice, the idea of a permanent inn sign took hold, a fact which explains why many of the oldest pubs in England have such names as the Red Lion, Rose and Crown, Black Swan, and White Horse, all classic heraldic symbols.

? ? ? ? ? 紋章可以在其他戰(zhàn)爭(zhēng)用具上重復(fù)出現(xiàn)，如罩衣（系在腰部的長(zhǎng)無(wú)袖外衣，穿在盔甲外）、旆（三角長(zhǎng)矛旗）、馬套、旗幟的正面和背面，也可以掛在傳令官的號(hào)角下面。有些騎士會(huì)在盔甲上鐫刻自己的紋章，但由于價(jià)格昂貴而很少見(jiàn)。紋章不僅在戰(zhàn)爭(zhēng)中有用，在中世紀(jì)的競(jìng)技比賽中，紋章是識(shí)別參賽者的好方法，騎士們經(jīng)常要把紋章掛在比賽期間下榻的客棧外。因此，英國(guó)許多最古老的酒館都有紅獅、玫瑰王冠、黑天鵝和白馬等名稱，這些都是經(jīng)典的紋章標(biāo)志。

Coats of arms might appear in official records, where they were often used as seals instead of signatures, and they were painted on residence walls, appeared in the stained glass windows of churches, were sculpted in stone on building exteriors, painted on tableware, and, of course, were represented on the tomb of the person who had borne the right to carry the arms while alive. The shield-shape was always maintained and even developed as real shield designs changed over the centuries. When the shield became redundant in the 15th century CE thanks to all-encompassing plate armour, the designs of coats of arms became ever more fanciful and the shield more elaborate. However, the classic kite-shaped shield, although a little squatter, remains the favourite of heralds even today. The notable exceptions are the arms of women who, from the 14th century CE, began to bear their own coat of arms, typically in a lozenge shape.

? ? ? ? ? 紋章可能會(huì)出現(xiàn)在官方記錄中，這些紋章經(jīng)常被用作印章而不是簽名；紋章還被繪制在住宅的墻壁上，出現(xiàn)在教堂的彩色玻璃窗上，被雕刻在建筑外墻的石頭上，繪制在餐具上。當(dāng)然，紋章還會(huì)出現(xiàn)在生前有權(quán)攜帶紋章的人的墓碑上。幾個(gè)世紀(jì)以來(lái)，隨著盾牌設(shè)計(jì)的不斷變化，盾牌的形狀始終保持不變，甚至有所發(fā)展。公元 15 世紀(jì)，由于板甲的普及，盾牌變得多余，紋章的設(shè)計(jì)變得更加奇特，盾牌也更加精致。不過(guò)，經(jīng)典的風(fēng)箏形盾牌雖然略顯笨拙，但仍是當(dāng)時(shí)傳令官們的最愛(ài)。值得注意的例外是女性的盾形紋章，從公元 14 世紀(jì)起，她們開(kāi)始佩戴自己的盾形紋章，通常為菱形。

As heraldry evolved and it became more important to show off family lineage than to identify oneself on a battlefield, coats of arms became more and more impressive and complex. These devices are known as an achievement in heraldic terms. No longer merely a shield form, they have retainers either side holding the shield (lions, unicorns, knights etc.), the shield might be topped with a crested helmet and even a crown in royal cases. Scrollwork such as complicated leaf arrangements surround the shield and a motto may be added below which encapsulates a family saying or commemorates a memorable event in their history.

? ? ? ? ? 隨著紋章學(xué)的發(fā)展，炫耀家族血統(tǒng)比在戰(zhàn)場(chǎng)上表明身份更為重要，紋章也變得越來(lái)越令人印象深刻和復(fù)雜。用紋章術(shù)語(yǔ)來(lái)說(shuō)，這些盾牌被稱為“榮譽(yù)”。它們不再僅僅是盾牌的形式，盾牌的兩側(cè)還有手持盾牌的侍從（獅子、獨(dú)角獸、騎士等）。盾牌周圍有卷軸裝飾，如復(fù)雜的樹葉排列，盾牌下方還可添加箴言，以概括家族箴言或紀(jì)念其歷史上值得紀(jì)念的事件。

紋章術(shù)語(yǔ)和設(shè)計(jì)慣例

Heraldry employs an extensive range of specific vocabulary so that coats of arms may be precisely described in words (a blazon). The shield, known as the field or ground, is divided into specific areas such as the top (chief), middle (fesse) and bottom (base). The right side of the shield is the dexter and the left side the sinister, with the right and left being from the viewpoint of someone holding the shield from behind, as in battle. The colours used in a shield are known as tinctures and have their own particular heraldic names. The colours used in medieval times were generally limited to:

Gold (yellow) - oro

Silver (white) - argent

Red - gules

Black - sable

Green - vert

Purple - purpure

Blue - azure

? ? ? ? ? 紋章學(xué)使用了大量特定詞匯，以便用文字精確描述紋章。盾牌被稱為“領(lǐng)域”，分為特定區(qū)域，如頂部（頭部）、中部（腰帶）和底部（底座）。盾牌的右側(cè)為正方，左側(cè)為反方，左右兩側(cè)是在戰(zhàn)斗中從后面持盾者的視角。盾牌上使用的染料被稱為“酊劑 (Tincture)”，并有自己特定的紋章名稱。中世紀(jì)紋章使用的顏色一般僅限于以下幾種：

金（黃）（Gold (yellow)）—金色（/??r/；在法語(yǔ)意為“黃金”）

銀（白）（Silver (white)）—銀色（argent）

紅色（Red）—紅色（gules）

黑色（Black）—黑色（sable）

綠色（Green）—綠色（vert）

紫色（Purple）—紫色（Purpure）

藍(lán)色（Blue）—藍(lán)色（azure）

Green and purple were less commonly used than the others, while in the 15th century CE mulberry (murrey) and orange (tenné) were added to the list. An alternative background to colour was furs, that is designs which resemble the furs which were commonly used in medieval aristocratic clothing. The two most popular were ermine (from the stoat) with many small black tail tips and vair (from the squirrel) which was represented by various white and blue patterns.

? ? ? ? ? 與其他顏色相比，綠色和紫色較少使用，而到了公元 15 世紀(jì)，桑葚色（murrey）和橙色（tenné）也被加入其中。顏色和金屬的替代品是毛皮，其設(shè)計(jì)讓人想起中世紀(jì)貴族服裝中常用的皮革。最流行的兩種毛皮是帶有許多小黑尾尖的貂皮（來(lái)自白鼬）和以各種白色和藍(lán)色圖案表現(xiàn)的松鼠毛皮。

To increase combinations, the shield was divided (parted) into different zones of colour by a single vertical (per pale), horizontal (fess) or diagonal line (bend dexter or bend sinister). Alternatively, the shield was divided into four blocks (quarterly), had a chevron, or was divided into either four (saltire) or eight triangles (gyronny). These standard eight variations eventually evolved into a much larger number of divisions and designs. The dividing line between areas of colour could also be altered to provide even more variety, becoming, for example, wavy, crenellated, or zig-zag. Yet another variety was to give the shield a border (sub-ordinary) or impose thick lines of colour (ordinaries) such as stripes, chevrons, crosses and Y-shapes.

? ? ? ? ? 為了增加組合，盾牌被一條垂直線（分隔）、水平線（三葉形）或?qū)蔷€（彎曲在左上方或彎曲在右上方）分割成不同的顏色區(qū)域?；蛘撸芘票环殖伤牟糠郑ㄋ姆址ǎ?，有一個(gè)楔形，或者被分成四個(gè)（saltire）或八個(gè)三角形（gyronny）。這標(biāo)準(zhǔn)的八種變化最終演變成更多的劃分和設(shè)計(jì)。顏色區(qū)域之間的分界線也可以改變，以提供更多的變化，例如，變成波浪形、雉堞形（鋸齒狀垛墻的城墻）或之字形。還有一種方法是在盾牌上加一個(gè)邊框，或在盾牌上加一些粗線條的顏色，如條紋、楔形、十字和 Y 形。

Another popular form of identity on shields was to use animate charges (birds and animals) or inanimate charges (everyday objects like spurs, hammers, axes etc.). Monsters from mythology generally only appeared on arms after the medieval period.

? ? ? ? ? 盾牌上另一種流行的標(biāo)識(shí)形式是使用有生命的飾物（鳥類和動(dòng)物）或無(wú)生命的飾物（馬刺、錘子、斧頭等日常用品）。神話中的怪獸一般在中世紀(jì)后才出現(xiàn)在盾牌上。

The description of a coat of arms had to be precise so that artists could reproduce them without a more expensive visual source. For this reason, a convention of description evolved where the elements which made up a coat of arms were always described in the following order and their exact position noted:

1、the field and its divisions (background)

2、the ordinary (lines)

3、the principal charges (objects)

4、the charge on the ordinary

5、the sub-ordinaries

6、the charges on the sub-ordinaries

? ? ? ? ? 對(duì)紋章的描述必須精確，這樣藝術(shù)家才能在沒(méi)有更昂貴的視覺(jué)輔助工具的情況下復(fù)制紋章。因此，逐漸形成了一種描述慣例，即組成紋章的元素總是按以下順序描述，并注明其確切位置：

1、區(qū)域劃分（背景）

2、普通紋飾（一個(gè)簡(jiǎn)單的幾何圖形，以直線為界，從盾牌的側(cè)面或頂部延伸至底部）

3、有生命或無(wú)生命的寓意物

4、普通紋飾上的寓意物（備注：翻譯可能有誤，一切以原文為主）

5、從屬圖案

6、從屬圖案上的寓意物（備注：翻譯可能有誤，一切以原文為主）

Heraldry still thrives today, of course, and has spread from the individual to the group with clubs, sports teams, and even businesses all creating their own badges of identity. Colleges of arms continue to issue new coats of arms for families, although the process can be both lengthy and expensive so that, even in the more socially mobile societies of the modern world, there is still some distinction and cachet in having the right to them. Coats of arms can still be seen in all manner of places where they send clear visual messages such as those which proclaim state authority on military uniforms and banknotes, those which promote quality and history as on fine porcelain and foodstuffs, and those which promote civic pride such as on fountains and war memorials.

? ? ? ? ? 當(dāng)然，紋章學(xué)至今依然興盛，并從個(gè)人擴(kuò)展到團(tuán)體，俱樂(lè)部、運(yùn)動(dòng)隊(duì)甚至企業(yè)都在創(chuàng)造自己的身份徽章。紋章學(xué)院繼續(xù)為家族頒發(fā)新的紋章，盡管頒發(fā)過(guò)程可能既漫長(zhǎng)又昂貴，但即使在現(xiàn)代社會(huì)中，擁有紋章的權(quán)利仍然具有一定的獨(dú)特性和吸引力。紋章仍然可以在各種地方看到，它們傳遞著明確的視覺(jué)信息，例如在軍裝和鈔票上宣示國(guó)家權(quán)威的紋章，在精美瓷器和食品上宣傳質(zhì)量與歷史的紋章，以及在噴泉和戰(zhàn)爭(zhēng)紀(jì)念碑上宣揚(yáng)公民自豪感的紋章。

參考書目：

Coss, P. Heraldry, Pageantry and Social Display in Medieval England. Boydell Press, 2003.

Gies, J. Life in a Medieval Castle. Harper Perennial, 2015.

Gravett, C. English Medieval Knight 1200a€“1300. Osprey Publishing, 2002.

Gravett, C. Knights at Tournament. Osprey Publishing, 2018.

Phillips, C. The Complete Illustrated History of Knights & The Golden Age of Chivalry. Southwater, 2017.

Slater, S. The Illustrated Book of Heraldry. Lorenz Books, 2013.

Wise, T. Medieval Heraldry. Osprey Publishing, 2017.

原文作者：Mark Cartwright

????????? 駐意大利的歷史作家。他的主要興趣包括陶瓷、建筑、世界神話和發(fā)現(xiàn)所有文明的共同思想。他擁有政治哲學(xué)碩士學(xué)位，是《世界歷史百科全書》的出版總監(jiān)。

原文網(wǎng)址: https://www.worldhistory.org/Medieval_Heraldry/