Trade and commerce were essential components of the success and expansion of the Byzantine Empire. Trade was carried out by ship over vast distances, although for safety, most sailing vessels were restricted to the better weather conditions between April and October. On land, the old Roman road system was put to good use, and so by these two means goods travelled from one end of the empire to the other, as well as from far-away places such as modern-day Afghanistan, Russia, and Ethiopia. The bigger cities had thriving cosmopolitan markets, and Constantinople became one of the largest trading hubs in the world where shoppers could stroll down covered streets and pick up anything from Bulgarian linen to Arabian perfumes.

? ? ? ? ? 商業(yè)貿(mào)易是拜占庭帝國(guó)強(qiáng)盛與對(duì)外擴(kuò)張的重要組成部分。拜占庭商人通過(guò)船只進(jìn)行遠(yuǎn)距離貿(mào)易，盡管為了安全起見(jiàn)，大多數(shù)帆船被限制在4月至10月之間的較好天氣條件下航行。在陸地上，古老的羅馬公路系統(tǒng)得到了較好利用；通過(guò)這兩種交通方式，貨物從帝國(guó)的一端運(yùn)到另一端，以及從遙遠(yuǎn)的地方，如現(xiàn)代的阿富汗、俄羅斯和埃塞俄比亞運(yùn)來(lái)。較大的城市擁有繁榮的國(guó)際市場(chǎng)，君士坦丁堡成為世界上最大的貿(mào)易中心之一，購(gòu)物者可以在棚頂街道上漫步，購(gòu)買(mǎi)從保加利亞亞麻布到阿拉伯香水的任何進(jìn)口貨物。

拜占庭對(duì)待貿(mào)易的態(tài)度

The attitude to trade and commerce in the Byzantine Empire had changed very little since antiquity and the days of ancient Greece and Rome: the activity was not regarded highly and considered a little undignified for the general landed aristocrat to pursue. For example, emperor Theophilos (r. 829-842 CE) famously burned an entire ship and its cargo when he found out that his wife Theodora had been dabbling in commerce and had financial connections with the vessel. This attitude may explain why Byzantine chroniclers often avoid the subject entirely. Indeed, in Byzantine art and literature, traders, merchants, bankers and money-lenders who had tried to cheat their clients were often portrayed as inhabiting the lower levels of Hell.

? ? ? ? ? 自古希臘、古羅馬時(shí)代以來(lái)，拜占庭帝國(guó)對(duì)商業(yè)貿(mào)易的態(tài)度變化不大：這項(xiàng)活動(dòng)不被高度重視，對(duì)一般的土地貴族來(lái)說(shuō)，商業(yè)貿(mào)易有點(diǎn)不體面。例如，狄?jiàn)W斐盧斯皇帝（公元829-842年）在發(fā)現(xiàn)他的妻子狄?jiàn)W多拉一直在涉足商業(yè)活動(dòng)并與某艘商船有經(jīng)濟(jì)聯(lián)系時(shí)，他下令燒毀了整艘船及其貨物，這一點(diǎn)在歷史上很有名。統(tǒng)治者的這種態(tài)度也許可以解釋為什么拜占庭的編年史家經(jīng)常完全回避這個(gè)話題。事實(shí)上，在拜占庭的藝術(shù)和文學(xué)作品中，那些試圖欺騙客戶的貿(mào)易商、商人、銀行家和放債人往往被描繪成居住在地獄的下層。

There was also a general mistrust of traders and entrepreneurs (who could be both men and women) by both the general populace and the authorities. Emperors, therefore, were often particular in enforcing such matters as the standardisation of weights and measures, and, of course, prices. Heavy goods were scrupulously weighed using steelyards and weights in the form of a bust of either the emperor or the goddess Minerva/Athena. Smaller goods such as spices were measured out using a balance with weights made of copper-alloy or glass. To minimise cheating, weights were inscribed with their representative weight or equivalent value in gold coinage and regularly checked.

? ? ? ? ? 普通民眾和當(dāng)局對(duì)商人和企業(yè)家（可以是男性和女性）也普遍存在不信任。因此，皇帝們?cè)趫?zhí)行諸如重量和度量衡的標(biāo)準(zhǔn)化，當(dāng)然還有價(jià)格方面的規(guī)定時(shí)，往往很重視。重的貨物要用秤砣和皇帝或密涅瓦/雅典娜女神的半身像來(lái)嚴(yán)格稱(chēng)量。較小的貨物，如香料，則使用天平和銅合金或玻璃制成的砝碼進(jìn)行測(cè)量。為了最大限度地減少商人的作弊行為，砝碼上刻有其代表重量或金幣的等值，并有專(zhuān)人定期檢查。

國(guó)家的參與

Perhaps because of these attitudes to trade as a slightly less than respectable profession, the state was much more involved in it than might be expected. Unlike in earlier times, the state played a greater role in trade and the provisioning of major cities, for example, which was rarely left to private traders. Trade operated through a variety of hereditary guilds with merchants who transported the goods (navicularii) being subsidised by the state and subject to significantly reduced duties and tolls. Duty on imported goods was collected by state-appointed officials known as kommerkiarioi who collected duties on all commercial transactions and who issued an official lead seal once goods had been through the system. To limit the possibilities for corruption, the kommerkiarioi were given one-year posts and then moved elsewhere.

? ? ? ? ? 也許是由于這些對(duì)貿(mào)易的態(tài)度，認(rèn)為貿(mào)易是一種略顯不體面的職業(yè)，國(guó)家在貿(mào)易中的參與程度比預(yù)期的要高得多。與早期不同的是，國(guó)家在貿(mào)易和主要城市的供應(yīng)方面發(fā)揮了更大的作用，這些貿(mào)易很少由私人商人來(lái)做。貿(mào)易通過(guò)各種行會(huì)運(yùn)作，運(yùn)輸貨物的商人（navicularii）得到國(guó)家的補(bǔ)貼，并享受大幅降低的關(guān)稅和通行費(fèi)。進(jìn)口貨物的關(guān)稅由國(guó)家任命的官員（kommerkiarioi）征收，他們對(duì)所有商業(yè)交易征收關(guān)稅，一旦貨物通過(guò)該系統(tǒng)，他們就會(huì)頒發(fā)官方鉛封。為了限制腐敗的可能性，Kommerkiarioi被授予一年的職位，期滿后轉(zhuǎn)職到其他地方。

Customs stations were dotted along the frontiers and major ports of the empire with two of the most important being at Abydos and Hieron, which controlled the Straits between the Black Sea and the Dardanelles. There must have been a good deal of smuggling but measures were taken to counter it such as a 6th-century CE treaty between the Byzantines and Sassanids which stipulated that all traded goods must pass through official customs posts. Records were scrupulously kept, too, most famously the Book of the Prefect in Constantinople, which also outlined the rules for trade and trade guilds in the city.

? ? ? ? ? ?海關(guān)站分布在帝國(guó)的邊境和主要港口，其中最重要的兩個(gè)是在阿拜多斯和希倫，它們控制著黑海和達(dá)達(dá)尼爾海峽地區(qū)之間的海峽。這里有大量的走私活動(dòng)，但官方也采取了一些措施來(lái)對(duì)付走私活動(dòng)，如公元6世紀(jì)拜占庭和薩珊王朝之間的條約規(guī)定，所有貿(mào)易貨物必須通過(guò)官方海關(guān)。貿(mào)易記錄也被官方嚴(yán)格保存，最有名的是君士坦丁堡的《省長(zhǎng)之書(shū)》，它還概述了該城市的貿(mào)易與貿(mào)易行會(huì)的規(guī)則。

Other examples of state intervention in trade include the provision made for loss or damage to goods transported by sea. The Rhodian Sea Law (7th or 8th century CE) stipulated that, in such a case, merchants received a fixed compensation. The state also ensured that no goods useful to an enemy were permitted to be exported - gold, salt, timber for ships, iron for weapons, and Greek Fire (the secret Byzantine weapon of highly inflammable liquid). Neither was the prestigious silk dyed with Tyrian purple permitted for sale abroad.

? ? ? ? ? 國(guó)家干預(yù)貿(mào)易的其他例子包括對(duì)海上運(yùn)輸貨物的損失或損壞作出的規(guī)定。羅德海法（公元7或8世紀(jì)）規(guī)定，在這種情況下，商人可以得到固定的賠償。國(guó)家還確保不允許出口對(duì)敵人有用的貨物——黃金、鹽、船舶用木材、武器用鐵和希臘火（拜占庭的秘密武器，高度易燃液體）。著名的用骨螺紫染色的絲綢也不允許在國(guó)外銷(xiāo)售。

Another area of close state supervision was, of course, coinage. Copper, silver, and gold coins were minted and issued carrying images of emperors, their heirs, the Cross, Jesus Christ, or other images related to the Church. Although the state minted coins primarily for the purpose of paying armies and officials, the coinage did filter down and through all levels of society. Coinage - in the form of the standard gold nomisma (solidus) coin - was also necessary to pay one's annual taxes. When there were fewer wars and so fewer soldiers and suppliers to pay for or when the tentacles of the local state bureaucracy declined in the 7th and 8th century CE, coins could become scarce and barter had to be resorted to in the provinces, especially.

? ? ? ? ? 國(guó)家密切監(jiān)督的另一個(gè)領(lǐng)域是錢(qián)幣。銅幣、銀幣和金幣被鑄造和發(fā)行，上面印有皇帝、其繼承人、十字架、耶穌基督或其他與教會(huì)有關(guān)的圖像。雖然國(guó)家鑄造貨幣主要是為了支付軍隊(duì)和官員工資，但貨幣確實(shí)向下滲透并在社會(huì)的各個(gè)層面流通。貨幣——以標(biāo)準(zhǔn)金幣諾米斯瑪塔（索利都斯）的形式——也是支付個(gè)人年度稅收所必需的。當(dāng)戰(zhàn)爭(zhēng)減少，因此需要支付的士兵和供應(yīng)商也減少時(shí)，或者當(dāng)?shù)胤絿?guó)家官僚機(jī)構(gòu)在公元7和8世紀(jì)衰落時(shí)，貨幣可能變得稀缺，特別是在各省不得不訴諸于易貨貿(mào)易。

Byzantine state control of trade was hit by the Arab conquests from the 7th century CE. Cities, too, were in decline and ever-more self-sufficient while shipping became increasingly the domain of private traders. When a greater stability in the Mediterranean allowed for a resurgence in wider trade networks from the 10th century CE, it would be the Italian states which seized the opportunity to reap profit from the transport and sale of goods from one end of the known world to the other. Great merchants such as the Venetians were even given their own facilities and preferential regulations and duties at Constantinople. At first, this was in return for naval aid in Byzantine wars, but steadily the presence of Italian merchants (from Amalfi, Pisa, Genoa, and Venice) on the wharfs of the capital would become a permanent fixture. Constantinople, thus, could boast the most vibrant market in Europe with merchants from Syria, Russia, Arabia and many other places forming a semi-permanent cosmopolitan residency. Quarters sprang up in the city where Jews built synagogues, Arabs built mosques, and Christians their churches.

? ? ? ? ? 從公元7世紀(jì)開(kāi)始，拜占庭對(duì)貿(mào)易的控制受到了阿拉伯征服的打擊。城市也在衰落，越來(lái)越僅自給自足，而航運(yùn)逐漸成為私人商人的領(lǐng)域。從公元10世紀(jì)開(kāi)始，地中海地區(qū)變得更加穩(wěn)定，使得更廣泛的貿(mào)易網(wǎng)絡(luò)得以恢復(fù)，意大利的國(guó)家抓住了這個(gè)機(jī)會(huì)，從已知世界的一端到另一端的貨物運(yùn)輸和銷(xiāo)售中獲取利潤(rùn)。像威尼斯人這樣的大商人甚至在君士坦丁堡獲得了他們自己的設(shè)施和優(yōu)惠的法規(guī)和關(guān)稅。起初，這是對(duì)拜占庭戰(zhàn)爭(zhēng)中海軍援助的回報(bào)，但隨著時(shí)間的推移，意大利商人（來(lái)自阿馬爾菲、比薩、熱那亞和威尼斯）在首都碼頭將成為一種永久性的存在。因此，君士坦丁堡可以說(shuō)是歐洲最活躍的市場(chǎng)，來(lái)自敘利亞、羅斯、阿拉伯和其他許多地方的商人形成了一個(gè)半永久性的世界性居住地。城市中出現(xiàn)了猶太人建造猶太教堂、阿拉伯人建造清真寺、基督徒建造教堂的地方。

貿(mào)易貨物

The great traded goods of antiquity continued to be the most commonly shipped in the Byzantine Empire of the medieval period: olive oil, wine, wheat, honey, and fish sauce. Likewise, the terracotta amphora remained the storage vessel of choice. The design of amphorae changed depending on the location of their manufacture, although handles became significantly bigger from the 10th century CE. The contents were carefully labelled with either stamped inscriptions on the sides or clay tags added. Byzantine amphorae have been found across the Mediterranean and in ancient Britain, the Black Sea, the Red Sea, and the Arabian Sea areas. Not until the 12th century CE would the amphorae be challenged and surpassed in use by the wooden barrel.

? ? ? ? ? ?古代的貿(mào)易商品仍然是中世紀(jì)時(shí)期拜占庭帝國(guó)最常運(yùn)輸?shù)纳唐罚洪蠙煊?、葡萄酒、小麥、蜂蜜和魚(yú)醬。同樣地，陶制雙耳瓶仍然是首選的儲(chǔ)存容器。雙耳瓶的設(shè)計(jì)根據(jù)其制造地點(diǎn)的不同而改變，盡管從公元10世紀(jì)開(kāi)始，雙耳瓶的手柄明顯變大了。貨物被仔細(xì)地貼上標(biāo)簽，有的在側(cè)面印上銘文，有的則加上了粘土標(biāo)簽。拜占庭式雙耳瓶在整個(gè)地中海和古代英國(guó)、黑海、紅海和阿拉伯海地區(qū)都有發(fā)現(xiàn)。直到公元12世紀(jì)，雙耳瓶的地位才受到挑戰(zhàn)，并在使用上被木桶超越。

Other goods which were traded between regions included cattle, sheep, pigs, bacon, vegetables, fruit, pepper and other spices, medicines, incense, perfumes, soap, wax, timber, metals, worked gemstones, lapis lazuli (from Afghanistan), glass, ivory (from India and Africa), worked bone, flax, wool, textiles, linen (from Bulgaria), fur (from Russia), silver plate, enamels, amber (from the Baltic), bronze vessels, and brass goods (especially buckets and decorated doors panels largely destined for Italy). The slave trade, with slaves often supplied from Russia, continued to be important, too.

? ? ? ? ? ?其他地區(qū)之間的貿(mào)易商品包括牛、羊、豬、熏肉、蔬菜、水果、胡椒和其他香料、藥品、香、香水、肥皂、蠟、木材、金屬、加工寶石、青金石（來(lái)自阿富汗）、玻璃、象牙（來(lái)自印度和非洲）、加工骨、亞麻、羊毛、紡織品、亞麻（來(lái)自保加利亞）、毛皮（來(lái)自羅斯）、銀盤(pán)、琺瑯、琥珀（來(lái)自波羅的海）、銅器和黃銅制品（尤其是主要運(yùn)往意大利的水桶和裝飾門(mén)板）。奴隸貿(mào)易，通常由羅斯提供奴隸，仍然是重要的。

Pottery tableware was another common part of any ship's cargo as indicated by shipwrecks. Slipped red-bodied ceramics with stamped or applied decoration were common until the 7th century CE and then slowly replaced by finer wares which were lead-glazed, white-bodied and then red-bodied from the 9th century CE. Decoration, when present, was impressed, incised, or painted. Constantinople was a major production centre for white-bodied ceramics and Corinth produced a large quantity of red-wares from the 11th century CE.

? ? ? ? ? 正如考古學(xué)家發(fā)現(xiàn)的沉船所顯示，陶器餐具是任何船只承載貨物的?？?。在公元7世紀(jì)之前，帶有印記或應(yīng)用裝飾的滑動(dòng)紅體陶器很常見(jiàn)，它們慢慢被更精細(xì)的器皿所取代，這些器皿是鉛釉的、白體的，從公元9世紀(jì)開(kāi)始是紅體的。如果有裝飾，則是壓印、刻畫(huà)或繪畫(huà)。君士坦丁堡是白陶的主要生產(chǎn)中心，而科林斯從公元11世紀(jì)開(kāi)始生產(chǎn)大量的紅陶。

Silk was first introduced from China but imported raw silk was eventually replaced by silk produced on mulberry farms (the food of the silkworm) in Phoenicia and then Constantinople from 568 CE. The silk factory at the Byzantine capital was under imperial control, and the five silk guilds were under the auspices of the Imperial Prefect of the city. Other notable silk-producing sites within the empire included southern Italy, Greek Thebes and Corinth.

? ? ? ? ? 絲綢最早是從中國(guó)引進(jìn)的，從公元568年開(kāi)始，進(jìn)口的生絲最終被腓尼基和君士坦丁堡的桑樹(shù)農(nóng)場(chǎng)（蠶的食物）生產(chǎn)的絲綢所取代。拜占庭首都的絲綢廠處于帝國(guó)的控制之下，五個(gè)絲綢行會(huì)是在該城市的帝國(guó)長(zhǎng)官的主持下運(yùn)行的。帝國(guó)內(nèi)其他著名的絲綢生產(chǎn)地包括意大利南部、希臘底比斯和科林斯。

Marble was always in demand across the empire as it was used by those who could afford it for buildings, flooring, church altars, decoration, and furniture. The basic grey-white marble which became the staple of any Byzantine architect's project was quarried in large quantities from the island of Proconnesus in the Sea of Marmara (up to the 7th century CE) while more exotic marble came from Greece, Bithynia and Phrygia. Shipwrecks provide evidence that marble was worked before it was shipped to its final destination. Many ancient monuments, especially pagan ones, across the Mediterranean were also plundered for whatever useful marble bits and pieces could be reused and shipped elsewhere. Cyzicus in the Sea of Marmara became a noted centre of marble production and recycling from the 8th century CE.

? ? ? ? ? 大理石在整個(gè)帝國(guó)都有需求量，因?yàn)槟切┯心芰Φ娜藢⑵溆糜诮ㄖ?、地板、教堂祭壇、裝飾和家具?；镜幕野咨罄硎蔀槿魏伟菡纪ソㄖ燀?xiàng)目的主要材料，這些大理石大量采自馬爾馬拉海的普羅科尼蘇斯島（直到公元7世紀(jì)），而更多的異國(guó)大理石來(lái)自希臘、比提尼亞和弗里吉亞。沉船提供的證據(jù)表明，大理石在被運(yùn)往最終目的地之前已經(jīng)被加工過(guò)。整個(gè)地中海地區(qū)的許多古跡，特別是異教徒的古跡，也被掠奪，以獲取可以重新使用和運(yùn)往其他地方的任何有用的小塊大理石。從公元8世紀(jì)開(kāi)始，馬爾馬拉海的基齊庫(kù)斯成為著名的大理石生產(chǎn)和回收中心。

市場(chǎng)與商店

Ordinary citizens could purchase goods in markets which were held in dedicated squares or in the rows of permanent shops which lined the streets of larger towns and cities. Shops usually had two floors - one on street level where the goods were manufactured, stocked and sold, and a second floor where the shopkeeper or artisan and their family lived. Shoppers were protected from the sun and rain in such streets by collonaded roofed walkways, which were often paved with marble slabs and mosaics. Some shopping streets were pedestrianised and blocked to wheeled traffic by large steps at either end. In some cities, the shopkeepers were expected to maintain lamps outside their shops to provide street lighting. Just as today, shopkeepers tried to spread their wares out as far as possible to catch the casual shopper, and there are imperial records complaining about the practice.

? ? ? ? ? 普通市民可以在公共廣場(chǎng)的市場(chǎng)或較大城鎮(zhèn)街道兩旁的一排排永久性商店中購(gòu)買(mǎi)商品。商店通常有兩層——一層在街道上，用于生產(chǎn)、儲(chǔ)存和銷(xiāo)售貨物，第二層是店主或工匠及其家人的住所。在這樣的街道上，購(gòu)物者可以通過(guò)帶頂棚的人行道來(lái)避免日曬雨淋，這些人行道通常是用大理石板和馬賽克鋪成的。有些商業(yè)街是步行街，兩端的大臺(tái)階阻擋了車(chē)輪的通行。在一些城市，店主被要求在他們的商店外保留燈，以提供街道照明。就像今天一樣，店主們?cè)噲D將他們的商品盡可能地分散開(kāi)來(lái)，以抓住休閑購(gòu)物者的眼球，并且有帝國(guó)記錄抱怨商人的這種做法。

One final highlight of the shopping calendar was the festivals and fairs held on such important religious dates as saint's birthdays or death anniversaries. Then churches, especially those with holy relics to attract pilgrim visitors from far and wide, became the centrepiece of temporary markets where stalls sold all manner of goods. One of the largest such fairs was at Ephesus, held on the anniversary of Saint John's death. Typically, the 10% sales tax collected by the state kommerkiarioi at such events was a tidy sum, according to one record as much as 100 lbs (45 kilos) in gold.

? ? ? ? ??在購(gòu)物日歷中，我們可以發(fā)現(xiàn)最后一個(gè)亮點(diǎn)是在圣人的生日或死亡紀(jì)念日等重要宗教日期舉行的節(jié)日和集市活動(dòng)。教堂，特別是那些擁有圣物以吸引遠(yuǎn)道而來(lái)的朝圣者的教堂，成為臨時(shí)市場(chǎng)的中心，商人們?cè)谀抢飻[攤出售各種商品。最大的此類(lèi)集市之一是在以弗所，在圣約翰的死亡紀(jì)念日舉行。通常情況下，國(guó)家Kommerkiarioi在此類(lèi)活動(dòng)中收取的10%的銷(xiāo)售稅是一筆不小的數(shù)目，根據(jù)一項(xiàng)記錄，我們可以了解這筆稅多達(dá)100磅（45公斤）黃金。

參考書(shū)目：

Bagnall, R.S. The Encyclopedia of Ancient History. Wiley-Blackwell, 2012

Gregory, T.E. A History of Byzantium. Wiley-Blackwell, 2010.

Herrin, J. Byzantium. Princeton University Press, 2009.

Mango, C. The Oxford History of Byzantium. Oxford University Press, 2002.

Norwich, J.J. A Short History of Byzantium. Vintage, 1998.

Shepard, J. The Cambridge History of the Byzantine Empire c.500-1492. Cambridge University Press, 2009.

原文作者：Mark Cartwright

????????? 駐意大利的歷史作家。他的主要興趣包括陶瓷、建筑、世界神話和發(fā)現(xiàn)所有文明的共同思想。他擁有政治哲學(xué)碩士學(xué)位，是《世界歷史百科全書(shū)》的出版總監(jiān)。

原文網(wǎng)址：https://www.worldhistory.org/article/1179/trade-in-the-byzantine-empire/