社會(huì)和經(jīng)濟(jì)的發(fā)展

? ? ? ? ? 封建制度、公司、大學(xué)和城市是在基督教歐洲發(fā)展起來(lái)的四個(gè)主要機(jī)制。二元性和等級(jí)制度是這個(gè)世界的特點(diǎn)，城鎮(zhèn)和鄉(xiāng)村的世俗世界與教堂和修道院的神圣世界并列，這兩個(gè)世界經(jīng)常交織在一起。然而，基督教的藝術(shù)、文學(xué)和哲學(xué)將神圣世界提升到世俗世界之上。上帝之城，也就是教會(huì)的精神生活，比卑微的世俗追求更具有至高無(wú)上的地位。世俗和神圣的世界都是有等級(jí)的，每個(gè)人都堅(jiān)定地站在社會(huì)階梯的某一階層。每個(gè)等級(jí)都有其權(quán)力、權(quán)益、責(zé)任和要求，并與上層等級(jí)和下層等級(jí)相互關(guān)聯(lián)。正如被創(chuàng)造的宇宙被描述為一個(gè)巨大的存在鏈一樣，人們也把世俗領(lǐng)域理解為一個(gè)巨大的政治存在鏈，頂端是國(guó)王（或皇帝），由總封臣、附庸（封臣或陪臣）、一般封臣、騎士、鄉(xiāng)紳、仆人和其他多個(gè)角色組成的下層封建秩序，最后到達(dá)耕種土地的農(nóng)奴。教會(huì)的大教團(tuán)和小教團(tuán)有等級(jí)上的相互依存關(guān)系，工匠行會(huì)也是如此。

Feudalism, the corporation, the university, and the city were four major institutions that evolved in Christian Europe. Duality and hierarchy were characteristics of this world. The secular world of town and country was juxtaposed against the sacred world of church and monastery. The two worlds often intersected. Yet Christian art, literature, and philosophy elevated the sacred world above the secular. The City of God, the church’s spiritual life, had supremacy over paltry earthly strivings. Both the secular and sacred worlds were hierarchical. Every individual stood firmly on a rung of a social ladder. Each hieratic rank had its powers, rights, responsibilities, and requirements interrelated with the level above and the one below. Just as the created universe was described as a great chain of being, so the secular realm was construed as a great political chain of being with the king or the emperor at the top and then descending feudal orders of chief tenants, vassals, vavasours, knights, squires, servants, and multiple other links before reaching down to serfs who worked the land. Major orders and minor orders of the church had hierarchic interdependencies. So did craftsmen’s guilds.

封建制度

? ? ? ? ? 封建制度是在沒有強(qiáng)大的中央政府的情況下產(chǎn)生的一種權(quán)力分散的形式。中世紀(jì)封建制度起源于西羅馬帝國(guó)滅亡之前的幾個(gè)世紀(jì)。人們會(huì)記得，富有的羅馬貴族為了逃離城市的不安全和高稅收，在莊園中享受生活。他們?cè)谀抢锱c農(nóng)民簽訂契約，讓他們耕種土地，以換取羅馬軍隊(duì)的保護(hù)（對(duì)抗野蠻人的侵?jǐn)_）。這種貢獻(xiàn)制度與日耳曼部落的社會(huì)經(jīng)濟(jì)組織相融合，后者將其土地劃分為封地。(fief這個(gè)詞來(lái)源于德語(yǔ)vieh，意思是“?！?。)封建制度的興起與教會(huì)在中世紀(jì)社會(huì)的興起相類似。就像帝國(guó)崩潰后主教承擔(dān)了民事權(quán)力一樣，地方紳豪也出現(xiàn)了，以填補(bǔ)軍事和行政權(quán)力的真空。

Feudalism is a form of decentralized power that arises in the absence of a strong central government. The origins of medieval feudalism lie in the centuries prior to the fall of the Western Roman Empire. It will be recalled that wealthy Roman aristocrats fled the insecurity and high taxes of the cities and established themselves in villas. There they contracted farmers to work the land in exchange for protection from the barbarians and the Roman armies. This patronage system blended with the socioeconomic organization of Germanic tribes, who divided their lands into fiefdoms. (The word fief derives from the German vieh, meaning “cow.”) The rise of feudalism parallels the rise of the church in medieval society. Just as the bishops assumed civil authority after the collapse of the empire, so, too, local strongmen emerged to fill the vacuum of military and administrative power.

? ? ? ? ? 隨著10世紀(jì)末加洛林帝國(guó)的瓦解，封建制度變得根深蒂固。許多上臺(tái)的伯爵曾是帝國(guó)的官員，他們對(duì)政府的忠誠(chéng)是通過授予土地財(cái)產(chǎn)和財(cái)政特權(quán)維持的。還有一些是軍事強(qiáng)人，他們只是奪取了屬于皇家領(lǐng)地的土地，甚至是教會(huì)土地。無(wú)論哪種情況，封建領(lǐng)主都通過對(duì)其土地上的經(jīng)濟(jì)活動(dòng)行使專屬權(quán)利來(lái)維持其權(quán)力。例如，封建領(lǐng)主從居住在其領(lǐng)土上的所有農(nóng)奴那里獲得實(shí)物和貨幣的付款。他們還擁有重要的資源，如作為壟斷的面包店烤爐和谷物磨坊，鄉(xiāng)民們被迫光顧這些地方。

Feudalism became entrenched with the collapse of the Carolingian empire in the late 10th century. Many of the counts who rose to power had been Imperial officials whose loyalty to the government had been purchased through the granting of landed estates and fiscal privileges. Others were military strongmen who simply seized lands that had belonged to the royal demesne or even church lands. In either case the feudal lord maintained his power by exercising exclusive rights over the economic activities of his land. For instance, feudal lords received payment in kind and in currency from all the serfs who resided in their territories. They also owned vital resources such as bakery ovens and grain mills as monopolies, which the villeins were forced to patronize.

? ? ? ? ? 這種權(quán)力是不容易放棄的。中世紀(jì)持久的沖突之一是地方封建領(lǐng)主與伯爵之間的沖突，他們努力保持盡可能多的經(jīng)濟(jì)、民事和軍事權(quán)力，與神圣羅馬帝國(guó)皇帝和新出現(xiàn)的君主之間的沖突，他們則試圖將權(quán)力集中在自己手中。

Such power was not easily relinquished. One of the enduring conflicts of the Middle Ages would be between local feudal lords and counts who strived to maintain as much of their economic, civil, and military power as possible visà-vis the Holy Roman Emperors and new emerging monarchs who attempted to centralize power in their own hands.

商業(yè)革命

? ? ? ? ? 始于11世紀(jì)的商業(yè)革命在13世紀(jì)的國(guó)際市場(chǎng)上達(dá)到頂峰。這場(chǎng)革命是經(jīng)濟(jì)力量的平衡從農(nóng)村的封建莊園向城鎮(zhèn)的自由商人和工匠等新階層的轉(zhuǎn)移，以及經(jīng)濟(jì)的貨幣化。有幾個(gè)因素促成了這場(chǎng)革命。大約在1000年，斯堪的納維亞人和匈牙利人皈依了基督教，從而消除了對(duì)基督教世界的一個(gè)主要政治威脅。大約在同一時(shí)期，由于科爾多瓦哈里發(fā)國(guó)（后倭馬亞王朝）陷入內(nèi)戰(zhàn)，意大利商人重新獲得了對(duì)西地中海航線的控制。這些事件促使了連接巴爾干半島、地中海和拜占庭的重要貿(mào)易路線的恢復(fù)，刺激了西歐的經(jīng)濟(jì)。

A commercial revolution that began in the 11th century culminated in international markets in the 13th century. The revolution was the shift in the balance of economic power from the feudal estates of the countryside to the new classes of free merchants and artisans of the towns and cities and in the monetization of the economy. Several factors contributed to the revolution. Circa the year 1000, the Scandinavians and Hungarians converted to Christianity, thus removing a major political threat to Christendom. About the same time, Italian merchants regained control of the western Mediterranean Sea routes as the Córdoban caliphate descended into civil war. These and other events resulted in the recovery of important trade routes joining the Balkans, the Mediterranean, and Byzantium, which stimulated the economies of western Europe.

? ? ? ? ? 農(nóng)業(yè)技術(shù)的改進(jìn)和隨之而來(lái)的人口增長(zhǎng)創(chuàng)造了農(nóng)業(yè)生產(chǎn)不再需要的剩余人口。因此，居住在莊園村落、只能在冬季淡季從事其行業(yè)的工匠們開始向城鎮(zhèn)傾斜，在那里他們可以全身心地投入到自己的職業(yè)中。這些城市中心位于主要的朝圣路線上，或靠近大教堂，非常方便。工匠們集中在一個(gè)特定的地點(diǎn)，吸引了其他工匠，如補(bǔ)鞋匠、制衣匠、裁縫、醫(yī)生、藥劑師、屠夫和面包師。曾經(jīng)僅限于流動(dòng)的商人也在城市和城鎮(zhèn)建立了他們的基地。便利的地理位置和更安全的道路保證了穩(wěn)定的客戶流量。許多行業(yè)需要比家庭成員更多的工人，因此為工匠和普通勞動(dòng)者提供了工作，進(jìn)一步刺激了經(jīng)濟(jì)增長(zhǎng)。

Improvements in agricultural techniques and attendant demographic increase created a surplus population no longer needed for agricultural production. As a result, artisans who lived in estate villages and could only exercise their trade in the winter off-season began gravitating toward the towns and cities, where they could devote themselves full time to their profession. These urban centers were conveniently located along major pilgrimage routes or near cathedrals. The concentration of artisans in a given location attracted other specialists, such as cobblers, clothmakers, tailors, physicians, apothecaries, butchers, and bakers. Merchants, once limited to itineracy, also established their base in the cities and towns. The convenient location and greater safety on the roads guaranteed the steady flow of customers. Many trades required more workers than the members of a family and thus generated work for specialists and common laborers, further stimulating economic growth.

? ? ? ? ? 制造商品的工廠需要原材料和食品，這就激勵(lì)了農(nóng)村農(nóng)民增加生產(chǎn)，并將剩余的產(chǎn)品賣到城市中心。利用這些銷售所得的利潤(rùn)，鄉(xiāng)村農(nóng)民可以用他們傳統(tǒng)上必須花費(fèi)的時(shí)間來(lái)耕種封建領(lǐng)主的土地，以支付年金稅。獲得的時(shí)間使他們能夠?qū)①Y源用于提高自己土地的生產(chǎn)力，以進(jìn)一步提高利潤(rùn)。

Factories where goods were manufactured required raw materials and food, providing an incentive to rural farmers to increase their production and sell the surplus in the urban centers. With the profits earned from such sales, village farmers could substitute the time that they traditionally had to spend farming the lands of their feudal lords for the payment of an annuity tax. The time gained enabled them to put their resources into increasing the productivity of their own lands to further their profits.

? ? ? ? ? 商業(yè)化和城市生活使貨幣經(jīng)濟(jì)的發(fā)展成為必然。在傳統(tǒng)的封建莊園里，商品和服務(wù)的支付可以通過實(shí)物或以物易物的方式實(shí)現(xiàn)。但對(duì)于城市商業(yè)交易來(lái)說(shuō)，貨幣顯然要方便得多，而且對(duì)于國(guó)際貿(mào)易來(lái)說(shuō)貨幣也是不可或缺的。對(duì)硬通貨的需求也增加了人們對(duì)放債人的需求。由于基督教禁止放高利貸，放債是一項(xiàng)傳統(tǒng)上由猶太銀行家主導(dǎo)的服務(wù)。教會(huì)某些部門態(tài)度的變化和其他務(wù)實(shí)的考慮使意大利銀行家和放債人的地位上升。

Commercialization and urban living made the development of a money-based economy a necessity. On a traditional feudal estate payment for goods and services could be rendered in kind or realized through a system of barter. But money is obviously much more convenient for urban commercial transactions and indispensable for international trade. The need for hard cash also increased the need for moneylenders. Moneylending was a service that had traditionally been dominated by Jewish bankers because of the Christian prohibition of usury. Changes in attitude within certain sectors of the church and other pragmatic considerations allowed Italian bankers and moneylenders to rise in prominence.

? ? ? ? ? 在大多數(shù)情況下，教會(huì)不贊成商業(yè)革命和經(jīng)濟(jì)的貨幣化。在11世紀(jì)貨幣經(jīng)濟(jì)興起之前，關(guān)于七宗罪的神學(xué)論文總是將驕傲列為最嚴(yán)重的罪行，這反映了當(dāng)時(shí)權(quán)力的社會(huì)現(xiàn)實(shí)。有一個(gè)典型表現(xiàn)傲慢的圖標(biāo)，描繪了一個(gè)國(guó)王、封建領(lǐng)主或主教被謙卑的化身從馬背上扔下來(lái)的情景。隨著向貨幣經(jīng)濟(jì)的過渡，貪婪取代了傲慢，成為致命的罪孽中最嚴(yán)重的一種。貪婪的肖像畫往往是丑化的，顯示出排泄的硬幣或?qū)⒔疱X和放債人與魔鬼聯(lián)系起來(lái)。放債人經(jīng)常被描繪成具有怪誕夸張的“猶太人”特征，以煽動(dòng)民眾對(duì)猶太人的敵意。傳統(tǒng)的基督教傳教士用《圣經(jīng)》中的名言來(lái)威脅有權(quán)勢(shì)的商人，如著名的“因?yàn)閻坼X是萬(wàn)惡之源”（提摩太前書6：10）。具有諷刺意味的是，13世紀(jì)宣揚(yáng)并生活在使徒式貧窮中的修行會(huì)在處理城市富商和工匠的問題上更為成功。他們沒有讓富人為獲得財(cái)富而感到內(nèi)疚，而是將這些人的熱誠(chéng)引導(dǎo)到慈善事業(yè)上，并形成了照顧窮人的宗教團(tuán)體。

For the most part, however, the church disapproved of the commercial revolution and the monetization of the economy. Before the rise of the money economy in the 11th century, theological treatises on the seven deadly sins always listed pride as the worst sin, a reflection of the social realities of power at the time. A typical iconographic representation of the humbling of pride depicted a king, feudal lord, or bishop being thrown from his horse by the personification of humility. With the transition to the money economy, avarice replaced pride as the worst of the deadly sins. Iconographic renderings of avarice were often scatological, showing defecated coins or associated money and moneylenders with the devil. Moneylenders were often depicted with grotesquely exaggerated “Jewish” features to incite hostility toward the Jews. Traditional Christian preachers threatened the powerful burghers with biblical quotations such as the well-known “For the love of money is the root of all evil” (1 Tim. 6:10). Ironically, the 13th-century mendicant orders who preached and lived apostolic poverty were more successful in dealing with wealthy urban merchants and artisans. Rather than make the rich feel guilty for acquiring wealth, they channeled the fervent piety of these people toward works of charity and the forming of religious confraternities that tended to the poor.

? ? ? ? ? 促進(jìn)商業(yè)革命的另一因素是城鎮(zhèn)從君主那里得到的政治支持。城市居民和商人作為國(guó)王的盟友獲得了特權(quán)，以對(duì)抗更不可靠的伯爵和男爵。

Another factor contributing to the commercial revolution was the political support that towns and cities received from the monarch. Urban burghers and merchants received privileges as allies of the king against the more unreliable counts and barons.

城鎮(zhèn)和城市的發(fā)展

? ? ? ? ? 羅馬帝國(guó)滅亡后，歐洲大陸的城鎮(zhèn)有君主或封建霸主授予的自由憲章。生產(chǎn)與交換貨物和服務(wù)，需要人和貨物的安全以及水路與陸路等基礎(chǔ)設(shè)施的穩(wěn)定。防御、土地與河流的改善、貿(mào)易安全、國(guó)內(nèi)秩序和臨近市場(chǎng)，使城市對(duì)居住在其中的人和從其財(cái)富中獲得經(jīng)濟(jì)利益的人具有價(jià)值。最早的中世紀(jì)城市是由城鎮(zhèn)商人組成的團(tuán)體，通過誓言和個(gè)人紐帶結(jié)合在一起的。

After the fall of the Roman Empire, towns in continental Europe had charters of liberties granted by the sovereign or the feudal overlord. Producing and exchanging goods and services required physical safety for people and goods and stability of essential services such as water and roads. Defense, land and river improvements, safety of trade, domestic order, and proximity to markets made cities valuable to those who lived in them and those who gained financially from their wealth. The earliest medieval cities were groupings of town business folk united by oath and personal bond.

? ? ? ? ? 到12世紀(jì)末，選擇居住在城市的人都要宣誓承認(rèn)城市的權(quán)威。作為非宗教或教會(huì)宗主、國(guó)王或皇帝的領(lǐng)地的一部分，城市要向其領(lǐng)主進(jìn)貢并效忠。在戰(zhàn)時(shí)，城鎮(zhèn)由其騎士和武裝戰(zhàn)士提供服務(wù)，并提供物質(zhì)和金錢。統(tǒng)治者將城市作為財(cái)富和繁榮的來(lái)源，并在自由憲章中確認(rèn)其權(quán)利。然而，城市和它們的統(tǒng)治者之間經(jīng)常出現(xiàn)爭(zhēng)端。在國(guó)王和貴族之間的斗爭(zhēng)中，國(guó)王通常試圖與城市建立聯(lián)盟。大多數(shù)城市由選舉產(chǎn)生的議會(huì)領(lǐng)導(dǎo)，行政長(zhǎng)官和法官被稱為執(zhí)政官，在意大利則被稱為首席法官，在法國(guó)南部被稱為市政長(zhǎng)官。在法國(guó)北部，領(lǐng)導(dǎo)人被稱為市議員和陪審員，而在低地國(guó)家則被稱為參議員。在德國(guó)，城市領(lǐng)導(dǎo)人被稱為地方議會(huì)議員。除了議會(huì)之外，行會(huì)和公司在城市政府中也很重要。而城市民兵則負(fù)責(zé)城市防御。

By the late 12th century people who chose to live in cities took an oath acknowledging the authority of the city. As part of the demesne of a lay or ecclesiastical suzerain, a king, or an emperor, the town paid tribute and owed allegiance to its lord. In wartime the town provided service by its knights and armed warriors as well as material and money. Rulers favored cities as sources of wealth and prosperity and confirmed their rights in liberal charters. Disputes, however, often arose between cities and their overlords. In struggles between kings and noblemen, kings usually attempted to create alliances with cities. Elected councils led most cities. Magistrates and judges were called consuls, podestas in Italy, and capitouls in the south of France. In the north of France the leaders were called echevins and jures, and in the Low Countries senators. In Germany city leaders were called Ratsherren. In addition to the councils, guilds and corporations were prominent in city government. The city militia ensured defense.

? ? ? ? ? 為了互利而聚集在城鎮(zhèn)的商人和工匠們，在1100年前后創(chuàng)造了或大或小的商業(yè)中心，像蘑菇一樣在歐洲的田野上發(fā)芽。這些商業(yè)中心的人口增長(zhǎng)是以犧牲農(nóng)村為代價(jià)實(shí)現(xiàn)的。從加洛林帝國(guó)的遺跡中產(chǎn)生的封建制度是殘酷且壓迫的，封建領(lǐng)主禁止他們的農(nóng)奴離開土地，并在經(jīng)濟(jì)上虐待他們。為了抓捕逃亡的農(nóng)奴，領(lǐng)主會(huì)發(fā)布逮捕令，這些農(nóng)奴一旦被發(fā)現(xiàn)就會(huì)遭受酷刑。城市和城鎮(zhèn)提供了從封建義務(wù)中解放出來(lái)的承諾，而這種承諾通過王室法律的規(guī)定成為現(xiàn)實(shí)。12世紀(jì)授予法國(guó)北部洛里斯鎮(zhèn)的皇家憲章是一個(gè)典型的例子，說(shuō)明城鎮(zhèn)在整個(gè)西歐大部分地區(qū)提供并享有的特權(quán)與自由。1155年，卡佩王朝的路易七世（1137-80年）下令：“任何在洛里斯教區(qū)居住一年零一天的人，如果沒有人追捕他，也沒有拒絕將他的情況提交給我們或我們的教區(qū)長(zhǎng)，就可以在那里自由居住，不受干擾”（Ogg，330）。許多足智多謀的逃亡農(nóng)奴設(shè)法在城市的隱蔽性中獲得自由?！堵謇锼够始覒椪隆愤€保證了伯格人（近代早期歐洲中世紀(jì)城鎮(zhèn)中特權(quán)公民的等級(jí)或頭銜）的其他特權(quán)，如免除關(guān)稅、過路費(fèi)、道路與補(bǔ)貼稅，并保護(hù)他們的財(cái)產(chǎn)不被非法沒收。

Merchants and craftsmen who gathered for mutual benefit in towns created larger or smaller commercial centers that sprouted like mushrooms over European fields in and around the year 1100. The population growth of these commercial centers was achieved at the expense of the countryside. The feudal system that emerged out of the remains of the Carolingian empire was brutal and oppressive. Feudal lords forbade their serfs to leave the land and abused them economically. Orders of arrest were issued to capture fugitive serfs, who when found were subjected to torture. Cities and towns offered the promise of liberation from feudal obligations, and this promise was made reality by the provisions of royal law. A 12th-century royal charter granted to the town of Lorris in northern France will serve as an example of the privileges and freedoms towns and cities offered and enjoyed throughout most of western Europe. In 1155 the Capetian king Louis VII (r. 1137–80) decreed, “Any one who shall dwell a year and a day in the parish of Lorris, without any claim having pursued him there, and without having refused to lay his case before us or our provost, shall abide there freely and without molestation” (Ogg, 330). Many a resourceful fugitive serf managed to gain his or her freedom in the anonymity of the city. The Charter of Lorris also guaranteed burghers other privileges such as exemption from tallage, toll, road, and subsidy taxes and protection from the unlawful seizure of their property.

? ? ? ? ? 在地中海、北意大利、多瑙河和萊茵河上游、佛蘭德斯和波羅的海沿岸的貿(mào)易路線上，許多城鎮(zhèn)成為城邦。米蘭、威尼斯、熱那亞、比薩和佛羅倫薩管理著他們的帶圍墻城市和周圍的鄉(xiāng)村地區(qū)。弗蘭德斯（法蘭德斯）的布魯日和根特迅速發(fā)展成為重要的城市。

Towns became city-states along trade routes in the Mediterranean, North Italy, the Upper Danube and Rhine Rivers, in Flanders, and on the Baltic coast. Milan, Venice, Genoa, Pisa, and Florence governed their walled cities and the surrounding countryside. Bruges and Ghent in Flanders developed quickly into significant cities.

? ? ? ? ? 在萊茵河、波羅的海和北海，城鎮(zhèn)成為帝國(guó)自由城市，它們只效忠于皇帝。在神圣羅馬帝國(guó)境內(nèi)，帝國(guó)自由城市包括紐倫堡、法蘭克福、奧格斯堡、斯特拉斯堡、漢堡和呂貝克，這是漢薩同盟的主要國(guó)際港口。法國(guó)和英國(guó)的城鎮(zhèn)與他們的國(guó)王簽訂了憲章，巴黎和倫敦是重要的商業(yè)城市。倫巴第聯(lián)盟和漢薩聯(lián)盟等城市聯(lián)盟打著自己的旗號(hào)進(jìn)行戰(zhàn)爭(zhēng)，有自己的商法，并從事自己的外交活動(dòng)。

On the Rhine River and on the Baltic and North Seas, towns became Imperial free cities owing allegiance only to the emperor. Within the Holy Roman Empire Imperial free cities included Nuremberg, Frankfurt, Augsburg, Strasbourg, Hamburg, and Lübeck, the major international port of the Hanseatic League. French and English towns signed charters with their kings, and Paris and London were important commercial cities. Urban federations such as the Lombard League and the Hanseatic League fought wars under their own flags, had their own merchant law, and engaged in their own diplomacy.

? ? ? ? ? 富裕的城市爭(zhēng)奪哪個(gè)城市擁有最豐富的商品、國(guó)際交流、強(qiáng)大的商人以及高雅的公民文化等榮譽(yù)。每個(gè)城鎮(zhèn)居民都獲得了與城鎮(zhèn)企業(yè)自由相關(guān)的自由。城鎮(zhèn)和大學(xué)一樣，通常是公司，就像現(xiàn)代公司的定義一樣，具有永久的生命力，盡管組成公司的個(gè)人是普通的短命凡人。

Wealthy cities vied for the honors of which had most variety in merchandise, international exchanges, powerful merchants, and refined and civic culture. Each individual townsman achieved a liberty associated with a town’s corporate liberty. Towns, like universities, usually were corporations, as in the modern definition of corporation, having a perpetual life even though individuals composing the corporation were ordinary short-lived mortals.

行? ? ?會(huì)

? ? ? ? ? 11世紀(jì)的西歐出現(xiàn)了專業(yè)行會(huì)，它們?cè)谏虡I(yè)革命和國(guó)際貿(mào)易中發(fā)揮了突出作用。商人行會(huì)和手工業(yè)行會(huì)之間有一個(gè)基本劃分。商人行會(huì)從事遠(yuǎn)距離和本地商業(yè)。來(lái)自威尼斯、熱那亞、倫敦、根特和其他地方的強(qiáng)大的商人公會(huì)在外國(guó)城市建立了殖民地。手工業(yè)行會(huì)是根據(jù)貿(mào)易組織的，成員通常擁有自己的企業(yè)。這兩種類型的職業(yè)行會(huì)都以同樣的方式運(yùn)作。一個(gè)行會(huì)的成功取決于其個(gè)別成員的合作，行會(huì)成員同意貢獻(xiàn)某些資源，并合作采取有利于組織的經(jīng)濟(jì)和精神努力的聯(lián)合行動(dòng)。他們對(duì)每個(gè)行業(yè)和工藝的從業(yè)人員進(jìn)行培訓(xùn)，準(zhǔn)備發(fā)證，并對(duì)其進(jìn)行監(jiān)管，范圍包括釀酒、烘焙、編織、銀器制造、制刀和制鞋，以及造船、采礦、泥瓦匠、醫(yī)藥和外科等。工匠大師教導(dǎo)學(xué)徒，并雇用工匠，他們按日或短期合同工作以獲取工資。城市執(zhí)行行會(huì)條例，制定卓越的標(biāo)準(zhǔn)，并起訴不當(dāng)行為，市政府還確保行會(huì)大師履行其培訓(xùn)學(xué)徒的義務(wù)。

Professional guilds that emerged in 11th-century western Europe played a prominent role in the commercial revolution and international trade. A basic division was made between merchant guilds and craft guilds. Merchant guilds engaged in long-distance and local commerce. Powerful merchant guilds from Venice, Genoa, London, Ghent, and elsewhere established colonies in foreign cities. Craft guilds were organized according to trade, and members usually owned their own businesses. Both types of occupational guilds operated the same way. A guild’s success depended upon the cooperation of its individual members. Guild members agreed to contribute certain resources and to cooperate in taking joint actions that would benefit the organization’s economic and spiritual endeavors. They trained, prepared for licensing, and regulated practitioners of each industry and craft ranging from brewing, baking, weaving, silversmithing, knife making, and shoemaking to shipbuilding, mining, masonry, medicine, and surgery. Master craftsmen taught apprentices and employed journeymen, who worked for wages on a daily or short-term contract. Cities enforced guild regulations that set standards of excellence and prosecuted malpractice. Municipal governments also ensured that guild masters fulfilled their obligations to train apprentices.

? ? ? ? ? 商人和手工業(yè)行會(huì)的經(jīng)濟(jì)重要性轉(zhuǎn)化為真正的政治權(quán)力。行會(huì)官員有權(quán)對(duì)不正當(dāng)?shù)某蓡T進(jìn)行罰款、懲罰或驅(qū)逐。供給品行會(huì)可以操縱食品的供應(yīng)，使其具有經(jīng)濟(jì)優(yōu)勢(shì)。商人公會(huì)保護(hù)自己不受掠奪性統(tǒng)治者的誘惑，例如在戰(zhàn)爭(zhēng)期間，他們威脅要抵制冒犯性統(tǒng)治者的王國(guó)，從而扣押外國(guó)商人的資產(chǎn)。這種威脅是有效的，因?yàn)榈种茣?huì)使依賴商業(yè)稅收的王國(guó)和政府陷入貧困。行會(huì)還通過向貴族支付一筆錢，威脅他們，甚至領(lǐng)導(dǎo)民眾反抗他們來(lái)遏制貴族的干涉。行會(huì)成員的財(cái)富和政治影響力使他們能夠在地方政府中占據(jù)重要位置，甚至控制地方政府。

The economic importance of merchant and craft guilds translated into real political power. Guild officials were empowered to fine, punish, or expel malfeasant members. Victualing guilds could manipulate the availability of foodstuffs to their economic advantage. Merchant guilds protected themselves from predatory rulers who might be tempted, such as during wartime, to seize the assets of foreign merchants by threatening to boycott the kingdom of the offending ruler. Such threats worked because a boycott could impoverish kingdoms and governments dependent upon tax revenues from commerce. Guilds also held the interference of aristocrats in check by paying a sum of money to them, threatening them, or even leading popular revolts against them. The wealth and political influence of guild members enabled them to occupy prominent positions in or even control local governments.

? ? ? ? ? 富裕的行會(huì)建造了豪華的哥特式行宮、圖書館和大教堂，并促進(jìn)了當(dāng)?shù)貞騽『退囆g(shù)的發(fā)展。12世紀(jì)之前制定的度量衡、硬幣匯率、簿記和商業(yè)合同等標(biāo)準(zhǔn)在13世紀(jì)的經(jīng)濟(jì)發(fā)展中變得越來(lái)越復(fù)雜。勇敢的企業(yè)家精神刺激了文化和藝術(shù)，商業(yè)壟斷影響了戰(zhàn)爭(zhēng)與和平。

Wealthy guilds built proud Gothic guildhalls, libraries, and cathedrals and promoted local theater and art. Standards set before the 12th century for weights and measures, coinage exchange rates, bookkeeping, and commercial contracts became increasingly sophisticated in the economic progress of the 13th century. Bravura entrepreneurship stimulated culture and art, and mercantile monopolies affected war and peace.

? ? ? ? ? 還必須提到，在11世紀(jì)和12世紀(jì)出現(xiàn)的非職業(yè)性行會(huì)，以實(shí)現(xiàn)各種社會(huì)和宗教功能。社會(huì)或教區(qū)行會(huì)為成員提供經(jīng)濟(jì)上的互助，為嫁妝籌集資金，為學(xué)徒提供資金，以及償還貸款或法律費(fèi)用。宗教行會(huì)，又稱兄弟會(huì)，從事幫助靈魂逃離煉獄的工作，他們聚集在一起祈禱，贊助彌撒，并代表死者進(jìn)行慈善。

Mention must also be made of the nonoccupational guilds that also emerged in the 11th and 12th centuries to fulfill a variety of social and religious functions. Social or parish guilds provided members with mutual economic aid, raising money for dowries, to fund apprenticeships, and to pay off loans or legal fees. Religious guilds, otherwise known as confraternities, engaged in the work of helping souls to escape from purgatory by gathering together to pray, sponsoring masses, and giving charity on behalf of the dead.

大? ? ?學(xué)

? ? ? ? ? 1200年，巴黎拉丁區(qū)爆發(fā)了一場(chǎng)激烈的巷戰(zhàn)，一方是心懷不滿的學(xué)生和老師，另一方是皇家教務(wù)長(zhǎng)和他的手下。學(xué)生和教師決心組成一種新的行會(huì)，稱為 "大學(xué)"（universitas），并獲得法國(guó)國(guó)王的批準(zhǔn)，成立了巴黎師生大學(xué)。當(dāng)然，學(xué)生和大師們?cè)敢鉃樗麄兊臋?quán)利而戰(zhàn)，這一事實(shí)本身就表明，在1200年之前就存在著正式的大學(xué)。君士坦丁堡大學(xué)成立于849年，是第五世紀(jì)狄奧多西二世（408-450）創(chuàng)立的法律、哲學(xué)、醫(yī)學(xué)、算術(shù)、幾何學(xué)、音樂和修辭學(xué)學(xué)校的直接繼承者。西歐第一所授予學(xué)位的大學(xué)是博洛尼亞大學(xué)，它成立于1088年，是一所研究語(yǔ)法、修辭、邏輯和法學(xué)的文科學(xué)校。君士坦丁堡大學(xué)和博洛尼亞大學(xué)也是世俗機(jī)構(gòu)。

In 1200 a pitched street battle erupted in the Latin Quarter of Paris between disgruntled students and master teachers on the one side and the royal provost and his men on the other. The students and masters resolved to form a new kind of guild called a “union” (universitas) and obtained approval from the king of France to found the University of the Masters and Students of Paris. Of course, the mere fact that students and masters were willing to fight for their rights indicates that formal learning existed prior to the year 1200. The University of Constantinople was founded in 849 as a direct heir of the fifth-century School of Law, Philosophy, Medicine, Arithmetic, Geometry, Music, and Rhetoric founded by Theodosius II (r. 408–450). The first degree-granting university in western Europe was the University of Bologna, which was established in 1088 as a school of liberal arts for the study of grammar, rhetoric, logic, and jurisprudence. The University of Constantinople and the University of Bologna were also secular institutions.

? ? ? ? ? 西歐的教育在很大程度上遵循了一條由教會(huì)設(shè)計(jì)并來(lái)自教會(huì)的不同道路。為了確保教會(huì)的延續(xù)和帝國(guó)的正常管理查理曼大帝在814年頒布了一項(xiàng)帝國(guó)法令，命令大教堂和修道院為所有符合條件的男孩提供適當(dāng)?shù)慕逃?。這些大教堂學(xué)校的課程是為了培養(yǎng)受過教育的神職人員。課程包括語(yǔ)法、修辭和邏輯的三要素，其次是算術(shù)、天文、幾何和音樂的四要素。教皇格里高利七世在11世紀(jì)的格里高利改革中規(guī)定，所有大教堂和修道院都要建立培訓(xùn)神職人員的學(xué)校。巴黎成為最大的學(xué)習(xí)中心，因?yàn)楦辉５氖ツ冈捍蠼烫美锏慕處煼浅?yōu)秀，而且在城市中心有許多修道院學(xué)校。巴黎修道院學(xué)校的學(xué)生和非住校教授從歐洲各地來(lái)到位于市中心的拉丁區(qū)定居，之所以被稱為拉丁區(qū)是因?yàn)檫@里的通用語(yǔ)言和教學(xué)語(yǔ)言是拉丁語(yǔ)。

Education in western Europe largely followed a different path engineered by and from the church. In order to ensure the perpetuation of the church and the proper administration of his empire, in 814 Charlemagne issued an imperial decree ordering cathedrals and monasteries to provide a suitable education to all eligible boys. The curriculum of these cathedral schools was designed to produce an educated clergy: Subjects included the trivium of grammar, rhetoric, and logic, followed by the quadrivium of arithmetic, astronomy, geometry, and music. Pope Gregory VII’s 11th-century Gregorian Reforms included the mandate that all cathedrals and monasteries establish schools for the training of the clergy. Paris emerged as the greatest center of learning because of the excellence of its teachers in the wealthy Cathedral of Notre Dame and the location of numerous monastery schools in the heart of the city. Students and nonresident professors of Parisian monastic schools traveled from all over Europe to settle in the centrally located Latin Quarter, so called because the lingua franca and language of instruction was Latin.

? ? ? ? ? 12世紀(jì)，隨著希臘邏輯學(xué)和哲學(xué)作品的拉丁文譯本開始從西班牙和西西里的翻譯學(xué)校抵達(dá)巴黎，學(xué)校課程發(fā)生了巨大的轉(zhuǎn)變。課程的創(chuàng)新產(chǎn)生了學(xué)術(shù)主義，這是一種強(qiáng)調(diào)使用辯證推理來(lái)解決文本中明顯矛盾的學(xué)習(xí)方法，并采用辯論（disputatio）作為工具來(lái)論證問題的雙方。

School curricula took a dramatic turn in the 12th century as Latin translations of Greek logic and philosophical works began to arrive in Paris from the translation schools of Spain and Sicily. Innovations in the curricula gave rise to Scholasticism, a method of learning that emphasized the use of dialectical reasoning to resolve apparent contradictions in a text and employed debate (disputatio) as a tool to argue both sides of a question.

? ? ? ? ? 12世紀(jì)和13世紀(jì)，西歐的大學(xué)正蓬勃發(fā)展。有些大學(xué)，如博洛尼亞大學(xué)，是由學(xué)生創(chuàng)辦和資助的，他們雇用教授并支付他們的工資。更常見的是，教會(huì)或王室支付教師的工資，巴黎大學(xué)和劍橋大學(xué)的情況就是如此。大學(xué)在政治和教育方面都發(fā)揮了重要作用，大公會(huì)議在公布其教義法令之前，都會(huì)征求大學(xué)的意見。巴黎大學(xué)的神學(xué)家們介入了教皇的分裂事件。受過大學(xué)培訓(xùn)的著名多米尼加人和方濟(jì)各會(huì)在試圖改變穆斯林和猶太人的信仰時(shí)，使用了學(xué)術(shù)性的辯論方法。在教皇格里高利九世和皇帝腓特烈二世之間關(guān)于意大利控制權(quán)的爭(zhēng)端中，教皇利用了博洛尼亞法學(xué)院的著名教規(guī)律師。腓特烈為了報(bào)復(fù)，于1224年建立了那不勒斯大學(xué)，這是一所多部門的大學(xué)，其猶太教、基督教和穆斯林教師教授哲學(xué)、法律、醫(yī)學(xué)和其他科學(xué)。

The 12th and 13th centuries saw the flourishing of universities throughout western Europe. Some, such as the University of Bologna, were founded and funded by students who hired professors and paid their wages. More commonly, the church or the Crown paid teachers’ salaries, as was the case of the University of Paris and the University of Cambridge, respectively. Universities played a vital role in politics as well as education. Ecumenical councils consulted universities before publishing their doctrinal decrees. University of Paris theologians intervened in the papal schism. Prominent university-trained Dominicans and Franciscans used the Scholastic method of disputation in their attempts to convert Muslims and Jews. In the dispute over the control of Italy between Pope Gregory IX and Emperor Frederick II, the pope had made use of the renowned canon lawyers of Bologna’s Faculty of Law. Frederick retaliated by founding in 1224 the University of Naples, the multisectarian university whose Jewish, Christian, and Muslim faculty taught philosophy, law, medicine, and other sciences.

黑 死 病

? ? ? ? ? 黑死病是一場(chǎng)大流行的鼠疫，從1347年到1351年，它摧毀了整個(gè)歐洲以及亞洲和中東的部分地區(qū)，僅歐洲就有近三分之二的人口死亡。鼠疫是由中亞老鼠攜帶特有的細(xì)菌引起的，據(jù)認(rèn)為它是通過連接歐洲和亞洲市場(chǎng)的絲綢之路貿(mào)易，通過西西里島傳播到歐洲的。北歐人特別容易受到黑死病的影響，因?yàn)闅W洲大陸在1315年至1322年間曾受到大饑荒的嚴(yán)重打擊，大饑荒使人口嚴(yán)重營(yíng)養(yǎng)不良，傷寒和炭疽流行病也使佛蘭德斯和英格蘭的牛羊種群遭到破壞。

The Black Death was a pandemic of bubonic plague that devastated the whole of Europe and parts of Asia and the Middle East from 1347 to 1351, killing nearly two-thirds of the population of Europe alone. Caused by a bacterium endemic to rats in Central Asia, the plague is thought to have spread to Europe via Sicily from the Silk Road trade linking European and Asian markets. Northern Europeans were particularly vulnerable to the Black Death because the Continent had been hard hit by the Great Famine between 1315 and 1322, which left the population severely malnourished, and by typhoid and anthrax epidemics that devastated the sheep and cattle populations of Flanders and England.

? ? ? ? ? 由于黑死病、饑荒和其他流行病，不僅有數(shù)百萬(wàn)人喪生；整個(gè)經(jīng)濟(jì)也被毀了。歐洲繁榮的城鎮(zhèn)遭到了破壞，因?yàn)槊芮械纳顥l件使城市瘟疫比農(nóng)村地區(qū)傳播得更快。由于當(dāng)時(shí)的人們不確定鼠疫的傳播方式，歐洲君主的反應(yīng)是禁止食品出口，將貨物和商人置于檢疫之下。這些措施以及眾多商人和農(nóng)民的死亡造成了嚴(yán)重的經(jīng)濟(jì)衰退。具有諷刺意味的是，農(nóng)民的減少對(duì)他們自己有利，地主們不得不競(jìng)爭(zhēng)他們的勞動(dòng)力，提供更高的工資和其他自由。在法國(guó)、英國(guó)和意大利，當(dāng)統(tǒng)治者試圖征收更高的稅收和固定農(nóng)民工資時(shí)，農(nóng)民起義爆發(fā)了。

Not only were millions of lives lost because of the Black Death, famine, and the other epidemics; whole economies were ruined as well. Europe’s booming towns and cities were ravaged because the close living conditions spread the plague much more rapidly than in rural areas. Uncertain how the plague was spread, European monarchs reacted by prohibiting exports of foodstuffs and placing goods and merchants under quarantine. Such measures and the death of so many merchants and farmers caused a severe economic recession. Ironically, the decline in the peasantry worked to their advantage: Landlords now had to compete for their labor, offering higher wages and other liberties. Peasant uprisings broke out in France, England, and Italy when rulers tried to impose higher taxes and fix peasant wages.

? ? ? ? ? 歐洲驚恐的民眾將其恐懼轉(zhuǎn)化為對(duì)麻風(fēng)病人和猶太人的迫害。到14世紀(jì)末，麻風(fēng)病人在歐洲幾乎被消滅。猶太人也受到懷疑，因?yàn)樗麄儗?duì)儀式清潔的要求使他們無(wú)法使用公共水井，他們還住在與基督徒隔離的貧民區(qū)。因此，較少的猶太人感染了瘟疫。對(duì)猶太人在公共水井中投毒的指控導(dǎo)致了整個(gè)德國(guó)以及法國(guó)和西班牙北部對(duì)猶太人的迫害。

Europe’s terrified populace channeled its fears into the persecution of lepers and Jews. Lepers were virtually exterminated in Europe by the end of the 14th century. Jews were also suspect because their requirements for ritual cleanliness prevented them from using public wells. They also lived in ghettos segregated from Christians. Consequently, fewer Jews contracted the plague. Accusations of Jews’ poisoning public wells led to pogroms and massacres throughout Germany as well as in France and northern Spain.

? ? ? ? ? 黑死病也影響了歐洲的宗教文化，催生了激進(jìn)的懺悔者鞭笞運(yùn)動(dòng)，他們?cè)谝獯罄⒌聡?guó)和低地國(guó)家的城市中游蕩，公開進(jìn)行極端的自我折磨行為以贖罪。病態(tài)的禮儀贊美詩(shī)，如《憤怒的日子》（Dies irae），寓言詩(shī)，如《瘋狂之舞》，以及指導(dǎo)手冊(cè)，如《死亡的藝術(shù)》（Ars moriendi），說(shuō)明了人們對(duì)死亡的癡迷和迷戀。

The Black Death also affected European religious culture, giving rise to the flagellant movement of radical penitents who roamed the cities of Italy, Germany, and the Low Countries publicly performing extreme acts of self-mortification to expiate sin. Morbid liturgical hymns, such as the Dies irae (The Days of Wrath), allegorical poems such as the “Danse Macabre,” and instruction manuals such as the Art of Dying (Ars moriendi) illustrate the popular obsession and fascination with death.

《Handbook To Life in The Medieval World》（2008）

By Madeleine Pelner Cosman and Linda Gale Jones?

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