Coal mining boomed during the British Industrial Revolution as it provided fuel for steam engines of all kinds in factories, transport, and agriculture. Draining flooded mines to extract more coal was the reason the steam engine was invented. As lighting used coal gas, and coke was needed to make iron and steel, so the demand for coal kept on growing.

? ? ? ? ?采煤業(yè)在英國工業(yè)革命期間蓬勃發(fā)展，它為工廠、運(yùn)輸和農(nóng)業(yè)的各種蒸汽機(jī)提供燃料。將礦井里的水抽出來以提取更多的煤是人們發(fā)明蒸汽機(jī)（真空蒸汽機(jī)）的初衷。后來照明使用煤氣作為燃料，煉鐵和煉鋼需要焦炭，所以英國對煤的需求不斷增長。

豐富的自然資源

Coal mining had been a major industry in Britain from the 16th century, ever since forests had been depleted and wood for fuel became scarce. There were four main coalfields: South Wales, southern Scotland, Lancashire, and Northumberland. All four produced high-quality coal, and all were conveniently positioned near waterways of one sort or another which could transport the coal to other regions. The abundance of coal and the early exploitation of it (half a century or more ahead of other European nations) meant that Britain already had the mining resources and know-how to fully exploit the arrival of industrial machines and other inventions which needed coal or its byproducts as a fuel. These coal-hungry inventions of the Industrial Revolution created a massive and sustained boom in coal mining.

? ? ? ? ? 從16世紀(jì)開始，自從森林枯竭和用于燃料的木材變得稀缺之后，煤炭開采就成為英國的主要產(chǎn)業(yè)之一。英國有四個主要的煤田： 南威爾士、南蘇格蘭、蘭開夏郡和諾森伯蘭郡。這四個地區(qū)都出產(chǎn)高質(zhì)量的煤炭，而且都位于交通便利的水道附近，可以將煤炭運(yùn)往其他地區(qū)。豐富的煤炭和早期的開發(fā)（比其他歐洲國家早半個世紀(jì)或更長時間）意味著英國已經(jīng)具備一定的采礦資源和專業(yè)知識，可以充分發(fā)揮那些需要煤炭或其副產(chǎn)品作為燃料的工業(yè)機(jī)器和其他發(fā)明的作用。工業(yè)革命中以煤炭為燃料的機(jī)器數(shù)量的增加，帶動了一個巨大的、持續(xù)的煤礦開采熱潮。

蒸汽機(jī)

The greatest invention of the Industrial Revolution was the steam engine, which transformed all manner of tasks and transportation from relying on human, animal, wind, or water power to using the far greater, cheaper, and more consistent power of machines. The steam engine was invented in the first place so that coal mines could be mined deeper and floodwaters pumped out of the shafts. By 1700, Britain already produced 80% of the coal in Europe. It was in 1712 that the first steam engine pump was built by Thomas Newcomen (1664-1729) to drain coal mines of water in Dudley in the Midlands. The steam engine needed coal for its fuel, and so when the invention was made more efficient and adapted for other uses by such inventors as James Watt (1736-1819) and Matthew Boulton (1728-1809), so the demand for coal grew. Steam engines were used to power cotton looms, steam hammers, threshing machines, and any other kind of heavy machinery that saved the costs of human and animal labour.

? ? ? ? ? 第一次工業(yè)革命中最偉大的發(fā)明是蒸汽機(jī)，它將各種工作和運(yùn)輸方式從依賴人力、動物力、風(fēng)力或水力轉(zhuǎn)變?yōu)槭褂酶鼜?qiáng)大、更便宜、更穩(wěn)定的機(jī)器力量。發(fā)明蒸汽機(jī)的初衷是為了使煤礦能夠開采得更深，并將積水從礦井中抽出。到1700年，英國已經(jīng)生產(chǎn)了歐洲80%的煤炭。正是在1712年，托馬斯·紐科門（1664-1729）建造了第一臺蒸汽機(jī)泵，用于從米德蘭的杜德里煤礦抽水。蒸汽機(jī)需要煤作為燃料，因此，當(dāng)詹姆斯·瓦特（1736-1819）和馬修·博爾頓（1728-1809）等發(fā)明家提高了這項發(fā)明的效率并將其用于其他用途時，人們對煤炭的需求也隨之增加。蒸汽機(jī)被用來驅(qū)動棉織機(jī)、蒸汽錘、脫粒機(jī)，以及其他任何一種節(jié)省人力和動物勞動成本的重型機(jī)械。

煤炭與運(yùn)輸

The boom in coal production caused a massive expansion in the canal system along and connecting all major rivers and their tributaries from 1750 as this was still the cheapest way to transport such heavy goods (at around half the cost of using roads). By 1830, "England and Wales had 3,876 miles [6,237 km] of inland canals, up from 1,399 [2,251 km] in 1760" (Horn, 17).

? ? ? ? ? 煤炭生產(chǎn)的繁榮促使從1750年起沿所有主要河流及其支流連接的運(yùn)河系統(tǒng)的大規(guī)模擴(kuò)張，因為這仍然是運(yùn)輸重型貨物最廉價的方式（成本大約是公路的一半）。1830年，“英格蘭和威爾士有3876英里[6237公里]的內(nèi)陸運(yùn)河，比1760年的1399英里[2251公里]有所增加”（霍恩，17）。

From 1825, the railways and their steam trains needed coal. The idea of railways had been born from the short stretches of rails used for pulling along carts of coal from the mine entrance to where it could be transported elsewhere by barge or ship. George Stephenson (1781-1848) owned a company in Newcastle that specialised in building railway trains to transport coal over short distances at coal mines. Stephenson designed the Locomotion 1 train engine. This locomotive was powerful enough to pull carriages, and it transported the first steam railway passengers from Stockton to Darlington in the northeast of England in 1825. From there, the railway network grew to connect practically all of Britain's cities and major towns.

? ? ? ? ? 從1825年起，鐵路運(yùn)輸對煤炭的需求逐年增加。鐵路的想法源于用于將煤車從礦井入口拖運(yùn)到可以用駁船或輪船運(yùn)到其他地方的短鐵軌。喬治·斯蒂芬森（1781-1848）在紐卡斯?fàn)枔碛幸患夜荆瑢ｉT建造鐵路列車，短距離運(yùn)輸煤炭。斯蒂芬森設(shè)計了Locomotion 1（機(jī)車一號）火車。這種火車頭的動力足以拉動車廂，它搭載了從斯托克頓到英格蘭東北部達(dá)靈頓的蒸汽鐵路上的第一批乘客。后來，鐵路網(wǎng)絡(luò)發(fā)展到幾乎連接英國所有的城市和主要城鎮(zhèn)。

From the mid-19th century, great new steamships like SS Great Britain (1843) and SS Great Eastern (1858) devoured hundreds of tons of coal each voyage as they crossed the Atlantic and other oceans. Even more traditional transport like canal boats were fitted with coal-eating engines.

? ? ? ? ? 從19世紀(jì)中期開始，像SS大不列顛（1843年）和SS大東方號（1858年）等大型輪船在穿越大西洋和其他海洋時，每次航行都要消耗數(shù)百噸煤炭。即使是最傳統(tǒng)的交通工具，如運(yùn)河船，也配備了燃煤發(fā)動機(jī)。

煤氣照明

Around 1792-4 the Scotsman William Murdock (1754-1839) first demonstrated coal gas could be used for lighting. Murdock had been alerted to the possibility when he had filled a smoking pipe with coal dust and the escaping gas lit when he placed it near an open fire. This new and brighter source of illumination replaced the burning of oil or tallow candles. The idea to use coal gas for street lighting was pioneered by the German inventor Frederick Albert Winsor (1763-1830) from 1807. Winsor spectacularly demonstrated the potential of his idea by setting up gas streetlights from Pall Mall to St James' Park in London, knowing that King George III of Great Britain (r. 1760-1820) would pass that way in his carriage. The demonstration caused a sensation, and Pall Mall received 13 permanent gas-lit lampposts and so became the first street in the world to be so illuminated.

? ? ? ? ? 大約在1792-14年，蘇格蘭人威廉·默多克(William Murdock，1754-1839)首次證明煤氣可以用于照明。默多克在一個煙斗里裝滿了煤粉，當(dāng)他把煙斗放在明火附近時，逸出的氣體點(diǎn)燃了煙斗，這時他就意識到了這種可能性。這種新的、更明亮的照明來源取代了油或牛脂蠟燭的燃燒。將煤氣用于街道照明的想法是由德國發(fā)明家弗雷德里克·阿爾伯特·溫索爾（1763-1830）在1807年開創(chuàng)的。溫索爾知道英國國王喬治三世（1760-1820年）將乘坐馬車經(jīng)過那里，于是在倫敦的Pall Mall（倫敦市中心威斯敏斯特市圣詹姆斯區(qū)的一條街道）和圣詹姆斯公園之間架設(shè)了煤氣路燈，從而展示了他的想法的潛力。這次演示引起了轟動，Pall Mall建設(shè)了13個永久性的煤氣燈柱，因此成為世界上第一條煤氣燈照明的街道。

Much wrangling with Parliament meant it was not until 1812 that Winsor won a contract to light more of London with his invention. Over the next decade, the capital was given 40,000 gas streetlights. The addition of light to previously dark streets transformed people's habits and, seen as much safer to go out at night, restaurants and entertainment establishments were able to attract far more customers than previously. The idea was a winner, and it soon spread to other British cities and abroad. In 1816, Baltimore became the first city in the United States to use coal gas street lighting; Paris followed suit in 1820.

? ? ? ? ? 在與議會發(fā)生多次爭執(zhí)后，溫莎直到 1812 年才獲得合同，用他的發(fā)明照亮倫敦更多地區(qū)。在接下來的十年里，首都建設(shè)了40,000盞煤氣燈。原本漆黑的街道變得明亮，燈光改變了人們的生活習(xí)慣，晚上外出似乎更安全，餐廳和娛樂場所也比以前吸引了更多的顧客。煤氣燈很快就傳到了其他英國城市和國外。1816年，巴爾的摩成為美國第一個使用煤氣燈照明的城市；巴黎也在1820年效仿采用煤氣燈照明街道。

Coal gas was also used for cookers in people's homes. By the 1850s, every major town had a gasworks. Coal and gas for heating meant that wood was no longer needed in such quantities, allowing land which had previously been reserved for forests to be used instead for agriculture.

? ? ? ? ? 煤氣也用于家庭烹飪。到19世紀(jì)50年代，每個主要城鎮(zhèn)都有一個煤氣廠。煤和煤氣供暖意味著人們不再需要大量的木材，從而使以前保留給森林的土地轉(zhuǎn)而用于農(nóng)業(yè)。

煤炭的其他用途

Coke, made from burning coal in a furnace to remove as many impurities as possible, became an essential fuel for iron- and steelworks. The first working blast furnace using coke was used in 1709 at Coalbrookdale in Shropshire, a works owned by Abraham Darby (1678-1717). Coke-fuelled blast furnaces could reach much higher temperatures than the traditional fuel of charcoal and did not introduce impurities into the furnace, two essentials for making the best steel. Coal, meanwhile, was used as a source of heat in anything from brickworks to breweries. The high concentration of factories in the West Midlands and their heavy use of coal meant the region became known as the 'Black Country'. Byproducts of making coke besides coal gas included tar and numerous chemicals. In the last quarter of the 19th century, coal was used, and still is, to generate electricity.

? ? ? ? ? 焦炭是通過在爐子里燃燒煤炭以盡可能多地去除雜質(zhì)而煉制成的，這成為鋼鐵廠必不可少的燃料。1709 年，亞伯拉罕達(dá)比（1678-1717 年）在什羅普郡的 Coalbrookdale 使用了第一座焦炭鼓風(fēng)爐。以焦炭為燃料的高爐可以達(dá)到比傳統(tǒng)的木炭燃料高得多的溫度，并且不會將雜質(zhì)帶入爐中，這是制造優(yōu)質(zhì)鋼材的兩個基本要素。與此同時，從磚廠到啤酒廠，煤炭被用作各種設(shè)施的熱源。西米德蘭地區(qū)的工廠高度集中，大量使用煤炭，使該地區(qū)被稱為“黑色鄉(xiāng)村”。除了煤氣，煉焦的副產(chǎn)品還包括焦油和許多化學(xué)品。在19世紀(jì)的最后一個季度，煤炭被用來發(fā)電，而且現(xiàn)在仍然如此。

Britain produced annually just 2.5 to 3 million tons of coal in 1700, but by 1900, this figure had rocketed to 224 million tons. In the 19th century, Britain was mining two-thirds of the world's coal. One French manufacturing inspector on a tour of Britain, Monsieur Ticquet, noted in 1738 that "Coal is one of the great sources of richness and abundance in England, and I regard it as the soul of the English manufactures" (Horn, 40). By the time of the 1851 census, there were 220,000 coal miners in Britain.

? ? ? ? ? 1700年，英國每年僅生產(chǎn)250萬至300萬噸煤，但到1900年，這一數(shù)字已飆升至2.24億噸。在19世紀(jì)，英國的煤炭開采量占世界的三分之二。一位法國制造業(yè)視察員Ticquet先生在1738年指出，“煤炭是英國財富的重要來源之一，我認(rèn)為它是英國制造業(yè)的靈魂”（霍恩，40）。到1851年的人口普查時，英國有22萬名煤礦工人。

Coal had become the lifeblood of the Industrial Age, its value demonstrable in statistics and charts but also more romantically in, for example, the decision of the exhibitors in the Great Exhibition of 1851 in London's Crystal Palace to include in their exhibits of the wonders of the modern era a 24-ton chunk of coal. Rather less wonderous was the great air pollution that the burning of coal created in cities and areas of heavy industry.

? ? ? ? ? 煤炭已經(jīng)成為工業(yè)時代的命脈，它的價值可以在統(tǒng)計數(shù)字和圖表中體現(xiàn)出來，但也可以更浪漫地體現(xiàn)出來，例如，1851年在倫敦水晶宮舉行的大展覽會上，參展商決定在其現(xiàn)代奇跡的展品中出展一塊24噸的煤炭。煤炭的燃燒在城市和重工業(yè)地區(qū)造成了巨大的空氣污染，這反而不是什么奇跡。

礦場的工作條件

Working in a mine is never the pleasantest of environments, but in the 18th and 19th centuries, the conditions were particularly poor. Hard physical work, most coal faces were worked using pickaxes. The seam of coal being worked might be very narrow indeed so that a miner was forced to work in a space no higher than 30 inches (75 cm). Women and children were employed in the mines. Women were used to carry heavy baskets of coal from the face to carts for transportation, which usually involved walking through water.

? ? ? ? ? 在礦井中工作從來不是最愉快的環(huán)境，但在18和19世紀(jì)，條件特別差。大多數(shù)采煤前線都使用鎬進(jìn)行作業(yè)。工作的煤層可能非常狹窄，因此礦工被迫在不超過 30 英寸（75 厘米）的縫隙中工作。礦場雇用婦女和兒童。婦女的任務(wù)是將沉重的煤炭筐從采煤前線搬運(yùn)到貨車上，這通常需要在水中行走。

Children as young as five years old were found useful to climb into narrow ventilation shafts and ensure trapdoors were regularly opened and shut. Most children, though, were employed to either shift the coal from the working level to the surface or to sort it out from other debris before it was shipped away. Those who pulled the coal in carts using a harness were known as 'hurriers', and it was back-breaking work detrimental to the child's physical development. Many parents were not opposed to their children working, despite the health hazards, since they brought in much-needed earnings for the family. In addition, over half of children working in mines kept their employment when they reached adulthood. From 1800 to 1850, children composed between 20-50% of the mining workforce. The consequence of working at such an early age was that most children employed in mines never had more than three years of schooling.

? ? ? ? ? 年僅五歲的孩子在爬進(jìn)狹窄的通風(fēng)井并確保艙口定期打開和關(guān)閉方面很有用。然而，大多數(shù)兒童的工作是將煤從工作層運(yùn)到地面，或者在運(yùn)輸前將煤與其他廢物分開。那些用套車?yán)旱娜吮环Q為“趕工”，工作很累，且不利于孩子的身體發(fā)育。盡管有健康風(fēng)險，但許多父母并不反對孩子工作，因為這為家庭提供了急需的收入。此外，在礦山工作的兒童中，有一半以上在成年后仍保持這份工作。從1800年到1850年，兒童占采礦勞動力的20%到50%。這么早工作的后果是，大多數(shù)受雇于礦山的兒童從未接受過三年以上的學(xué)校教育。

Men, women, and children very often suffered health problems from the physical hard work and long, 12-hour shifts. Breathing in coal dust year after year caused many to develop lung diseases. As the historian S. Yorke emphatically notes, "The coal mining industry must represent one of the worst exploitations of men, women and children ever to have taken place in Britain" (98).

? ? ? ? ? 男子、婦女和兒童經(jīng)常因體力勞動和長期12小時的輪班而出現(xiàn)健康問題。年復(fù)一年地吸入煤塵使許多人患上了肺部疾病。正如歷史學(xué)家S.Yorke所強(qiáng)調(diào)的那樣，“煤礦業(yè)必須代表英國有史以來對男人、女人和兒童最惡劣的剝削之一”（98）。

安全指示燈

With more miners working ever deeper within the Earth, more accidents inevitably occurred. In 1838, there were 97 deaths from roof collapses; in 1864, there were 395. Ropes breaking and letting fall great weights was another common occurrence but was reduced after the introduction of steel cables in mines from the early 1800s.

? ? ? ? ? 隨著越來越多的礦工在地下深處工作，更多的事故不可避免地發(fā)生了。1838年，有97人死于屋頂坍塌；1864年，有395人。繩索斷裂和重物落下致死是另一種常見的情況，但在19世紀(jì)初礦井引入鋼纜后，這種情況有所減少。

Another serious threat to life and limb was the explosion of gases (called by miners fire-damp or mine-damp, a lethal mix of methane gas and coal dust) which built up during the mining process. The naked flame of the lamps used to illuminate the shafts igniting the gas was the cause of such explosions.

? ? ? ? ? 對生命和肢體的另一個嚴(yán)重威脅是在開采過程中積累的氣體爆炸（礦工稱之為甲烷氣體，甲烷氣體和煤塵的致命混合物）。用來照亮礦井的燈的明火點(diǎn)燃了氣體，這就是爆炸的原因。

In 1815, Humphrey Davy (1778-1820) and George Stephenson (1781-1848) independently invented the safety lamp for use by miners, which enclosed the flame in a fine mesh (allowing air in but not the flame to spread out). In addition, if the flame of the lamp turned from orange to blue it indicated that the gas levels were dangerously high in the shaft and it was time to leave. Thirdly, the lamp could detect a dangerous amount of carbon dioxide (choke-damp) in the air as the flame extinguished itself allowing miners to leave the area before that gas built up to a fatal quantity. Davy's lamp, the most effective of the two, was first used in a coal mine in County Durham in 1816. The lamp saved countless lives, but it is also true that miners grew to depend on the lamps so much that they often took risks in exploring potentially dangerous passages in a mine that otherwise would have been left alone. The safety lamp was not as bright as candlelight either, and so many miners refused to use the new invention even if candles were prohibited.

? ? ? ? ? 1815年，漢弗里·戴維（1778-1820）和喬治·斯蒂芬森（1781-1848）發(fā)明了礦工安全燈，它將火焰封閉在一個細(xì)網(wǎng)中（允許空氣進(jìn)入但不排出火焰蔓延）。此外，如果燈的火焰從橙色變成藍(lán)色，則表明井中的氣體濃度高到危險的程度，是時候撤離了。當(dāng)火焰自行熄滅時，該燈可以檢測到空氣中危險的二氧化碳（窒息性氣體），使礦工在該氣體積累到致命數(shù)量之前離開該區(qū)域。戴維燈是兩種燈中最有效的一種，于1816年首次在達(dá)勒姆郡的一個煤礦中使用。這盞燈拯救了無數(shù)人的生命，但礦工們也確實越來越依賴這盞燈，以至于他們經(jīng)常冒險探索礦井中潛在的危險通道。安全燈也沒有燭光那么明亮，所以盡管蠟燭是被禁止的，但許多礦工仍拒絕使用這項新發(fā)明。

改革：1842 年礦業(yè)法

In 1842, the Mines Act was pushed through via the efforts of Lord Ashley, Earl of Shaftesbury (1801-1885), and public outrage at the increasing frequency of accidents and the knowledge that men and women were working together underground in a state of undress in the hot conditions. Ashley headed a Royal Commission that investigated working conditions in several mines and compiled testimony from those who worked in them. There were opponents to the Act, primarily mine owners and those who were against government interference in industry in principle. This opposition was the major reason why a recommendation to reduce working days from 12 hours to 10 never became a reality. Nevertheless, the Act now prohibited the employment of women, girls, and boys under 10 years of age from working underground. Safety regulations were to be better enforced, and only those over 15 years of age could operate machinery. Mine inspectors were employed by the government to ensure the new rules were put into practice. In the short term, the Act did mean that many women lost their jobs, and families with only daughters suffered severe financial hardship.

? ? ? ? ? 1842年，在沙夫茨伯里伯爵阿什利勛爵（1801-1885）的努力下，以及公眾對日益頻繁的事故和知道男女在炎熱的條件下不穿衣服在地下一起工作的憤慨下，礦業(yè)法得以通過。阿什利領(lǐng)導(dǎo)了一個皇家委員會，該委員會調(diào)查了幾個礦場的工作條件，并收集了在這些礦場工作的人的證詞。反對該法案的人，主要是礦主和那些原則上反對政府干預(yù)工業(yè)的人。這種反對意見是將工作日從12小時減少到10小時的建議從未成為現(xiàn)實的主要原因。盡管如此，該法案禁止雇用婦女、女孩和10歲以下的男孩從事地下工作。安全條例將得到更好的執(zhí)行，而且只有15歲以上的人才能操作機(jī)器。政府雇用了礦山檢查員，以確保新規(guī)則得以實施。在短期內(nèi)，該法案確實意味著許多婦女失去了工作，只有女兒的家庭遭受了嚴(yán)重的經(jīng)濟(jì)困難。

For good or bad, coal mining was a mainstay of the British economy into the 20th century. The noted historian Alan Macfarlane summarises the importance of coal to the Industrial Revolution and life as we know it today:

Our civilization in the modern world is built first on coal and later of course on other carbon energy – oil, and so on. Without this, there could have been no Industrial Revolution, it couldn't have happened in England and we would still be living in an agrarian society.(Dugan, 67)

? ? ? ? ? 無論好壞，煤炭開采都是英國經(jīng)濟(jì)的支柱，一直到20世紀(jì)。著名歷史學(xué)家艾倫·麥克法蘭 (Alan Macfarlane)?總結(jié)了煤炭對工業(yè)革命和我們今天生活的重要性：

? ? ? ? ? 我們現(xiàn)代世界的文明首先建立在煤炭上，后來當(dāng)然也建立在其他碳能源上：石油，等等。如果沒有這些，就不會產(chǎn)生工業(yè)革命，它不可能發(fā)生在英國，我們?nèi)詫⑸钤谵r(nóng)業(yè)社會。

煤炭開采對工業(yè)革命有什么作用？

? ? ? ? ? 煤炭開采對工業(yè)革命至關(guān)重要，因為它創(chuàng)造了對蒸汽機(jī)泵的需求，并為蒸汽機(jī)機(jī)器、供暖和煤氣照明提供了燃料。

在英國的工業(yè)革命中，煤被用來做什么？

? ? ? ? ? 在工業(yè)革命中，煤炭被用作機(jī)器、火車和蒸汽船的燃料。煤被用于取暖，煤氣被用于照明。煤炭燃燒產(chǎn)生的焦炭對鋼鐵工業(yè)至關(guān)重要。

?為什么煤炭開采對英國很重要？

? ? ? ? ? 煤炭開采對英國很重要，因為它提供了廉價和穩(wěn)定的燃料來源。

參考書目：

Allen, Robert C. The British Industrial Revolution in Global Perspective. Cambridge University Press, 2009.

Armstrong, Benjamin. Britain 1783-1885. Hodder Education, 2020.

Dugan, Sally & Dugan, David. The Day the World Took Off. Channel 4 Book, 2023.

Forty, Simon. 100 Innovations of the Industrial Revolution. Haynes Publishing UK, 2019.

Hepplewhite, Peter. All About. Wayland, 2016.

Horn, Jeff. The Industrial Revolution. Greenwood, 2007.

Humphries, Jane. Childhood and Child Labour in the British Industrial Revolution. Cambridge University Press, 2010.

Shelley. Industrialisation and Social Change in Britain. PEARSON SCHOOLS, 2016.

Yorke, Stan. The Industrial Revolution Explained& Massive Wheels. Countryside Books, 2005.

原文作者：Mark Cartwright

????????? 駐意大利的歷史作家。他的主要興趣包括陶瓷、建筑、世界神話和發(fā)現(xiàn)所有文明的共同思想。他擁有政治哲學(xué)碩士學(xué)位，是《世界歷史百科全書》的出版總監(jiān)。

原文網(wǎng)址：https://www.worldhistory.org/article/2201/coal-mining-in-the-british-industrial-revolution/