The traditional house of ancient and medieval Japan (1185-1606 CE) is one of the most distinctive contributions that country has made to world architecture. While the rich and powerful might have lived in castles and villas, and the poor lived in rustic country houses or cramped suburban quarters, a large number of medieval Japanese in-between lived in what became the quintessential Japanese home. Features which continue to be popular today include rice-paper walls, sliding doors and foldable screens, a floor of tatami mats and futon beds, and a minimalist approach to interior decor.

? ? ? ? ? 日本古代與中世紀(jì)（公元1185-1606年）的傳統(tǒng)住宅，對(duì)世界建筑作出了最獨(dú)特的貢獻(xiàn)之一。雖然富人和有權(quán)勢(shì)的人可能住在城堡與別墅里，而窮人住在質(zhì)樸的鄉(xiāng)間別墅或狹窄的郊區(qū)小屋，但大量介于兩者之間的中世紀(jì)日本人則住在今天成為典型的日本傳統(tǒng)住宅中。今天繼續(xù)流行的樣式包括：米紙墻、推拉門和可折疊屏風(fēng)、榻榻米和蒲團(tuán)床的地板，以及遵循極簡(jiǎn)主義的室內(nèi)裝飾。

日本建筑的形式

Most buildings in Japan, both long ago and today, need to resist annual typhoons and occasional tsunami and earthquakes. On top of that, the summers can be very hot, the winters cold, and there is an annual season of heavy rain. The ancient and medieval Japanese found a simple solution to these difficulties: do not build to last. Rather than resisting the environment, houses were, therefore, built to follow its whims and, if the worst happened, they were designed to be easily rebuilt again. This approach also means that very few old buildings have survived in Japan today, but the architectural style and tricks certainly have.

? ? ? ? ? 無(wú)論是過(guò)去還是今天，日本的大多數(shù)建筑都需要抵御每年登陸的臺(tái)風(fēng)和偶爾的海嘯與地震。除此之外，夏天很熱，冬天很冷，而且每年都有一個(gè)大雨季。古代與中世紀(jì)的日本人為了解決這些困難，找到了一個(gè)簡(jiǎn)單的解決方案：不要為了長(zhǎng)久居住而建造。因此，房屋的建造不是為了抵抗環(huán)境，而是為了順應(yīng)環(huán)境的變化，如果發(fā)生最壞的情況，人們很容易再次重建。這種方法也意味著，今天在日本很少有古老的建筑幸存下來(lái)，但建筑風(fēng)格和技巧肯定保留下來(lái)。

Japan had a very stratified class system and architecture was one of many ways authorities used to maintain the status quo and reinforce the idea that everyone has their correct station in life. There were specific sumptuary laws which prohibited commoners owning houses of the style favoured by samurai, for example. The samurai class were much impressed with the Zen-influenced architecture of Buddhist temples, and they imitated the austerity and minimalism of this in their own homes. These trends would eventually filter down into the homes of other classes. One area the lower classes did match their superiors was in their sparse furnishings, but this was usually due to a lack of means rather than aesthetics.

? ? ? ? ? 日本有階級(jí)制度，建筑是當(dāng)局用來(lái)維持現(xiàn)狀和加強(qiáng)不同等級(jí)的人正確生活地位的想法的方法之一。例如，有一些具體的軍需法，禁止平民擁有武士喜歡的風(fēng)格的房屋。武士階層對(duì)佛教寺廟中受禪宗影響的建筑印象深刻，他們?cè)谧约旱募抑幸材７逻@種簡(jiǎn)約的風(fēng)格。這些趨勢(shì)最終會(huì)滲透到其他階層的家中。下層階級(jí)與上層階級(jí)相匹配的一個(gè)方面是他們稀少的家具，但這通常是由于缺乏獲取渠道而不是美學(xué)。

外? ? ?飾

Prior to the modern era, Japanese domestic housing (minka) could be divided into the following four categories:

??farmhouses (noka)

??fishermen's houses (gyoka)

??mountain houses (sanka)

??urban houses (machiya)

在現(xiàn)代社會(huì)到來(lái)之前，日本的家庭住房（Minka）可以分為以下四類：

? ?農(nóng)舍 (noka)

? ?漁民的房子（gyoka）。

? ?山地住宅（Sanka）。

? ?城市房屋（Machiya）。

While all of the above had regional variations depending on local climate and the availability of materials, some common features may be identified. Those homes in rural areas, for example, were typically one-storey, built of wood, and raised off the ground by posts. They had a floor of hardened earth (doma) where cooking was done and had another area with a raised wooden floor for sleeping. Urban houses were smaller than the other categories because of the general lack of space in cities, but this problem was solved by building upwards and so many machiya had two floors. It was quite common for urban houses to be attached to each other and for toilets and a water source to be shared between neighbours. Many city houses were also the proprietor's business premises - a small workshop or shop. Windows were protected by sliding wooden panels (amado) which acted as shutters. A roof was made weatherproof by having a gable and then covering it with thatch, tiles or bark shingles. Roofs had overhanging eaves and the main entrance had its own covering (genkan).

? ? ? ? ? 雖然上述建筑都因當(dāng)?shù)貧夂蚝筒牧系目色@得性而存在地區(qū)差異，但我們可以發(fā)現(xiàn)一些共同的特點(diǎn)。例如，農(nóng)村地區(qū)的房屋通常是單層的，用木頭建造，用柱子抬高離地。他們有一個(gè)做飯用的硬土地板（doma），還有一個(gè)睡覺(jué)用的加高木地板的區(qū)域。城市房屋比其他類別的房屋要小，因?yàn)槌鞘衅毡槿狈臻g，但這個(gè)問(wèn)題通過(guò)向上建筑得到了解決，因此許多町屋有兩層。城市房屋彼此相連，鄰居之間共享廁所和水源的情況很常見(jiàn)。許多城市房屋也是房主的商業(yè)場(chǎng)，他們會(huì)在臨街處開(kāi)小作坊或商店。窗戶由滑動(dòng)的木板（amado）保護(hù)，作為百葉窗使用。屋頂上有一個(gè)屋檐，然后用茅草、瓦片或樹(shù)皮瓦片覆蓋，從而達(dá)到防風(fēng)雨的目的。屋頂有懸挑的屋檐，主入口有自己的遮蓋物（genkan）。

The architectural style of finer domestic houses became known as shinden-zukuri in the medieval period and an important part of it was the blending of home and garden. The garden was designed to be viewed from various points in the house by moving back sliding windows and walls. The garden itself was typically landscaped and might contain trees, flowering shrubs, groups of special grasses, areas of moss, artificial hills, water features, and a rock garden, although it was not necessarily a large space as all of these features could be miniaturised. Larger gardens often had their own rustic tea house (sukiya), a dedicated space for the Japanese Tea Ceremony. Initially, the shinden-zukuri style was only enjoyed by the samurai class.

? ? ? ? ? 在中世紀(jì)時(shí)期，較好的家庭住宅的建筑風(fēng)格被稱為"寢殿造"，其中一個(gè)重要部分是家庭與花園的融合。通過(guò)向后移動(dòng)推拉窗和墻壁，人們可以從房子的不同位置看到花園?；▓@本身是典型的景觀設(shè)計(jì)，包含樹(shù)木、開(kāi)花灌木、特殊草群、苔蘚區(qū)域、人造山丘、水景和巖石，它不一定是大空間，因?yàn)樗羞@些都可以被小型化。較大的花園通常有自己的茶館（sukiya），一個(gè)專門用于日本茶道的空間。最初，寢殿造風(fēng)格只被武士階層所喜愛(ài)。

內(nèi)? ? ?飾

The sitting room (zashiki) was first seen in the homes of samurai who, as members of the upper class, were required to give audiences to their vassals and officials. For the same reason, one area of the room's floor may be slightly raised (jodan-no-ma). The idea then spread to the homes of commoners in the late medieval period. There might be a built-in desk (tsukeshoin) facing the wall in this room, another hangover from the samurai's house.

? ? ? ? ? 起居室（zashiki）最早出現(xiàn)在武士家里，他們作為上層階級(jí)的成員，需要向他們的臣子或官員進(jìn)行演講。出于同樣的原因，房間地板的一個(gè)區(qū)域可能會(huì)稍微升高（jodan-no-ma）。這個(gè)想法后來(lái)在中世紀(jì)晚期傳播到了平民的家里。在這個(gè)房間里，可能會(huì)有一個(gè)面向墻壁的內(nèi)置書桌（tsukeshoin），這是武士家的另一個(gè)特征。

Interior paper-covered sliding doors (fusuma) were made by pasting paper (or even sometimes silk) onto a delicate wood-lattice frame. Doors were closed or opened to play with the size of rooms and windows were often designed in the same way. Above both, one might have a transom or ramma, which was a carved wooden rectangle which provided more light and air to the room. Internal space could be further divided using freestanding paper screens (shoji) which could be of the folding type (byobu) or consist of a single panel (tsuitate). The paper used in screens was usually thinner and more translucent than that used in walls. More rustic houses might also have bamboo or reed blinds (sudare) over the windows.

? ? ? ? ?室內(nèi)用紙覆蓋的推拉門（fusuma）是通過(guò)將紙（甚至有時(shí)是絲綢）粘貼在一個(gè)精致的木格子框架上制成的。門可以關(guān)閉或打開(kāi)，以調(diào)節(jié)房間的空間大小，窗戶也經(jīng)常以同樣的方式設(shè)計(jì)。在這兩者的上方，可能會(huì)有一個(gè)橫梁，這是一個(gè)雕刻的木制矩形，為房間提供更多的光線和空氣。內(nèi)部空間可以用獨(dú)立的紙屏風(fēng)（shoji）來(lái)進(jìn)一步劃分，這種屏風(fēng)可以是折疊式的（byobu），也可以是單板的（tsuitate）。屏風(fēng)用的紙通常比墻面用的紙更薄，更透亮。更加古樸的房屋可能還會(huì)在窗戶上安裝竹子或蘆葦百葉窗（sudare）。

The wooden floor of a traditional Japanese house is covered with rectangular tatami mats which are made from straw but with a top layer of woven grass. Tatami date back to the Heian period (794-1185 CE) and both the thickness and the pattern of the weaving of tatami mats was an indicator of status in medieval Japan. Although not exactly standardised across Japan in terms of size, the number of tatami mats it was possible to lay out in a single room became a common way to measure floor space. The size of a single tatami in the medieval period was 85 cm x 1.73 m (2.8 x 5.7 ft). Heating was provided by portable charcoal braziers (hibachi) or a fixed central hearth and, in the medieval period, lighting was provided by either wooden torches or oil lamps.

? ? ? ? ? 傳統(tǒng)日本房屋的木地板上鋪著長(zhǎng)方形的榻榻米，榻榻米由稻草制成，但上面有一層草編織而成。榻榻米的歷史可以追溯到平安時(shí)代（公元794-1185年），在中世紀(jì)的日本，榻榻米的厚度和編織的圖案都是地位的標(biāo)志。雖然在尺寸方面日本沒(méi)有完全標(biāo)準(zhǔn)化，但在一個(gè)房間里可以鋪設(shè)的榻榻米數(shù)量成為衡量建筑面積的常用方法。在中世紀(jì)時(shí)期，單個(gè)榻榻米的尺寸為85厘米×1.73米（2.8×5.7英尺）。暖氣由便攜式炭火爐（hibachi）或固定的中央爐灶提供，在中世紀(jì)時(shí)期，照明由木制火把或油燈提供。

家? ? ?具

Furniture was sparse in Japanese homes in the medieval period but might include floor cushions (zabuton), portable armrests, a low table (chabudai), small storage cabinets (kodana), hidden cupboards (shoji), and chests (tansu). These items were often made of unusual wood or bamboo and might be made more elaborate in design and decor using lacquer and gilding. Valuables such as a sword or jewellery were kept in chests, sometimes, according to the ancient Ainu tradition (Japan's indigenous population), in the north-east corner of the house where the guardian spirit of the house, Chiseikoro Kamui, was thought to dwell.

? ? ? ? ? 在中世紀(jì)，日本家庭的家具很少，但包括地墊（zabuton）、便攜式椅子、矮桌（chabudai）、小儲(chǔ)物柜（kodana）、暗柜（shoji）與箱子（tansu）。這些物品通常由不常見(jiàn)的木材或竹子制成，在設(shè)計(jì)和裝飾上使用大漆和鍍金來(lái)做得更精致。寶劍或珠寶等貴重物品被放在箱子里，根據(jù)古老的阿伊努人（日本的原住民）傳統(tǒng)，有時(shí)會(huì)放在房子的東北角，人們認(rèn)為房子的守護(hù)神Chiseikoro Kamui就住在那里。

Clothes were usually kept on stands or racks while bedding consisted of either a particularly thick tatami mat (or a pile of thin ones) or a futon, a thin mattress stuffed with cotton, wool or straw which could be easily folded up and kept in a cupboard or corner when not in use. For colder months, a wool or cotton quilt cover was used, a kakebuton. In summer, sleepers might use a mosquito net suspended from the ceiling, a device which has been used since antiquity in Japan.

? ? ? ? ? 衣服通常放在支架或架子上，而床上用品包括特別厚的榻榻米（或一堆薄的榻榻米）、被褥，一種塞滿棉花、羊毛或稻草的薄床墊，不使用時(shí)可以輕松折疊起來(lái)放在櫥柜或角落里。在較冷的月份，人們使用羊毛或棉被罩，即Kakebuton。在夏天，睡覺(jué)的人使用懸掛在天花板上的蚊帳，這種裝置在古代日本就出現(xiàn)了。

裝 飾 品

Many people hung artworks inside their homes, and these could take several forms. Hanging scrolls (kakemono or kakejiku) were made from either silk or paper and had a wooden pole at the bottom which served to weigh down the scroll flat against the wall and aid in rolling it up for storage. Scrolls, often hung in a purpose-built alcove (tokonoma) in the wall, showed either a painting or an example of fine calligraphy or a combination of both. In the case of paintings, these typically showed landscape scenes and were usually changed at the beginning of each of the four seasons so that they thematically matched the period in which they were viewed.

? ? ? ? ? 許多人在家里懸掛藝術(shù)品，這些藝術(shù)品有幾種形式。掛軸（kakemono或kakejiku）由絲綢或紙張制成，底部有一根木桿，用來(lái)壓住平放在墻上的畫卷，并方便將其卷起來(lái)儲(chǔ)存。卷軸通常掛在墻壁上專門建造的凹室（tokonoma）中，通常是一幅畫或一個(gè)精美的書法范例，或兩者的結(jié)合。如果是繪畫，通常是風(fēng)景畫，并且在每個(gè)季節(jié)開(kāi)始時(shí)進(jìn)行更換，以便在主題上與時(shí)節(jié)相符。

Another way to show off one's artistic taste was to have paintings done on the paper sliding doors of the room, on the paper walls themselves or on free-standing screens. A cheaper way to decorate one's home was to buy woodblock prints. These were especially popular in towns and cities from the 17th century CE and typically showed urban scenes (especially related to leisure activities), famous scenic spots, and actors. Prints were pasted directly on to walls or screens. Finally, purely decorative ornaments were used sparingly in the home, but a fine example of porcelain or lacquerware might be displayed. Ornaments and sometimes an arrangement of flowers or an incense burner were placed on shelves which were typically a staggered pair (chigaidana).

? ? ? ? ? ?另一種炫耀自己藝術(shù)品味的方式是在房間的紙滑門上、紙墻本身或獨(dú)立的屏風(fēng)上作畫。裝飾自己家的一個(gè)更便宜的方法是購(gòu)買木版畫。從公元17世紀(jì)開(kāi)始，這些木版畫在城鎮(zhèn)特別流行，通常展示城市場(chǎng)景（特別是與休閑活動(dòng)有關(guān)的）、著名的風(fēng)景區(qū)和演員。版畫被直接粘貼在墻上或屏幕上。純粹的裝飾品在家里很少，但可能會(huì)展示一個(gè)精美的瓷器或漆器。裝飾品，有時(shí)是鮮花或香爐的擺設(shè)，有些家庭會(huì)放置在一對(duì)交錯(cuò)的架子上（chigaidana）。

Although there might be some valuable collector pieces in a Japanese house, they were not locked in any way, and a burglar need do no more than slide open a window screen or even the front door. For this reason, those who could afford to often employed a caretaker if they were absent for any length of time. Another consequence of this lack of security was that any unknown person approaching a house was treated with suspicion, hence the precaution of visitors calling out 'Excuse me' as they approached the door, a tradition which still continues today in modern Japan.

? ? ? ? ? 日本的房子里可能有一些有價(jià)值的收藏品，但它們沒(méi)有鎖，竊賊只需要滑開(kāi)窗紗甚至前門就可以了。由于這個(gè)原因，那些家底豐厚的人如果長(zhǎng)時(shí)間不在家，往往會(huì)雇用一個(gè)看守人。這種缺乏安全保障的另一個(gè)后果是，任何接近房屋的不明身份的人都會(huì)被懷疑，因此來(lái)訪者在接近大門時(shí)要喊 "對(duì)不起"，這種傳統(tǒng)在現(xiàn)代日本仍然延續(xù)。

參考書目：

Ashkenazi, M. Handbook of Japanese Mythology. Oxford University Press, 2008.

Beasley, W.G. The Japanese Experience. University of California Press, 2000.

Deal, W.E. Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan. Oxford University Press, 2007.

Henshall, K. Historical Dictionary of Japan to 1945. Scarecrow Press, 2013.

Mason, R.H.P. A History of Japan. Tuttle Publishing, 1997.

Tsuda, N. A History of Japanese Art. Tuttle Publishing, 2009.

Yamamura, K. (ed). The Cambridge History of Japan, Vol. 3. Cambridge University Press, 2001.

原文作者：Mark Cartwright

????????? 駐意大利的歷史作家。他的主要興趣包括陶瓷、建筑、世界神話和發(fā)現(xiàn)所有文明的共同思想。他擁有政治哲學(xué)碩士學(xué)位，是《世界歷史百科全書》的出版總監(jiān)。

原文網(wǎng)址：https://www.worldhistory.org/article/1426/a-traditional-japanese-house/