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【簡(jiǎn)譯】中世紀(jì)的行會(huì)（Medieval Guilds）

2022-10-24 11:57 作者:神尾智代 0人讀過(guò) | 我要投稿

Guilds of merchants and craft workers were formed in medieval Europe so that their members could benefit from mutual aid, production standards could be maintained and competition was reduced. In addition, by members acting collectively, they could achieve a certain political influence. There were two main types of guilds: merchant guilds for traders and craft guilds for skilled artisans.

? ? ? ? ? 商人與手工業(yè)者行會(huì)在中世紀(jì)歐洲逐漸發(fā)展，行會(huì)成員可以從互助中受益，行業(yè)生產(chǎn)標(biāo)準(zhǔn)可以得到較好地維持，激烈競(jìng)爭(zhēng)也會(huì)相對(duì)減少。此外，行會(huì)成員的集體行動(dòng)，可以讓他們獲得一定的政治影響力。中世紀(jì)歐洲主要有兩種類型的行會(huì)：貿(mào)易商的商人行會(huì)和熟練工匠的手工業(yè)行會(huì)。

Entry requirements to guilds became stricter over time as those who controlled the guilds became part of a richer middle class and set a higher membership fee for outsiders. This new bourgeoisie successfully sought to maintain their position above workers without the means or skills needed to run their own small businesses.

? ? ? ? ? 隨著時(shí)間的推移，行會(huì)的準(zhǔn)入要求變得更加嚴(yán)格，因?yàn)槟切┛刂菩袝?huì)的人成為富有中產(chǎn)階級(jí)的一部分，并為外來(lái)者設(shè)定了更高的會(huì)員費(fèi)。這個(gè)新的資產(chǎn)階級(jí)一直尋求維持其地位，使其凌駕于沒(méi)有經(jīng)營(yíng)自己小企業(yè)的手段或技能的工人之上。

The name 'guild' derives from the Saxon word gilden, meaning 'to pay' or 'yield', as members of the guild were expected to contribute to its collective finances. In the 11th century early guilds functioned in towns much like village communities did in rural areas with the additional factor that merchants required more extensive protection for themselves and their goods as they travelled along trade routes at home and abroad. From the 12th century guilds were organised according to types of merchants and professionals like doctors before the idea expanded to include skilled artisans. Accordingly, there were over 100 guilds in Britain, for example, representing first merchants and traders, and then any skilled craft industry from weaving to metalworkers. Italy was another country where guilds were popular; the city of Florence alone boasted 21 guilds in the mid-14th century and the clothmakers guild there controlled some 30,000 workers. Flanders, France (Paris alone had 120 guilds) and Germany were other places where guilds rose to prominence.

? ? ? ? ? “行會(huì)”這一名稱源自撒克遜語(yǔ)（古撒克遜人的西日耳曼語(yǔ)）gilden，意思是“支付”或“收益”，行會(huì)成員需要為其集體財(cái)務(wù)作出貢獻(xiàn)。11世紀(jì)時(shí)，早期行會(huì)在城鎮(zhèn)的功能與農(nóng)村地區(qū)的村社很相似，另一個(gè)因素是商人在國(guó)內(nèi)外的貿(mào)易路線上旅行時(shí)需要對(duì)自己和貨物進(jìn)行更全面的保護(hù)。從12世紀(jì)開(kāi)始，行會(huì)根據(jù)商人和醫(yī)生等專業(yè)人員的類型進(jìn)行組織，然后擴(kuò)大到包括熟練工匠在內(nèi)的多種群體。因此，當(dāng)時(shí)在英國(guó)出現(xiàn)了100多個(gè)行會(huì)，例如，首先代表商人和貿(mào)易商，然后代表從編織到金屬加工等技術(shù)工藝行業(yè)。意大利是另一個(gè)流行行會(huì)組織的國(guó)家；14世紀(jì)中期，僅佛羅倫薩市就擁有21個(gè)行會(huì)，那里的制布商行會(huì)控制著大約3萬(wàn)名工人。佛蘭德斯、法國(guó)（僅巴黎就有120個(gè)行會(huì)）和德國(guó)是行會(huì)崛起的重點(diǎn)地區(qū)之一。

商人行會(huì)

Security was a great concern for medieval traders who worried that their goods could be stolen in transit or while in storage. Mutual protection and travelling in groups thus offered the best solution in a period when state intervention was sporadic or non-existent in certain regions. The right to form a guild in England was often given by the crown as part of a town's charter of freedom. A charter of freedom involved the sovereign selling the charter which, when given, waived the obligation of a town's inhabitants to pay feudal duties. Instead, they could apply their own taxes to the traffic of goods through the town. Merchant guilds did give back to their communities, too, prescribing from their members charitable gifts of food, wine and money for the clergy and poor and needy. The political class of a town typically came from the merchant guilds and, with a charter also establishing local courts, a new and powerful middle class sprang up. A similar pattern of development had occurred and was ongoing in other European countries.

? ? ? ? ? 對(duì)于中世紀(jì)的商人來(lái)說(shuō)，安全是一個(gè)非常重要的問(wèn)題，商人們擔(dān)心自己的貨物在運(yùn)輸途中或儲(chǔ)存期間被盜。因此，在某些國(guó)家干預(yù)零星地區(qū)或根本不存在管理的時(shí)期，相互保護(hù)和集體旅行為商人們提供了最佳解決方案。在英國(guó)，作為一個(gè)城鎮(zhèn)自由憲章的一部分，組建行會(huì)的權(quán)利通常是由王室給予的。自由憲章涉及到君主授予憲章，憲章一旦被授予，就免除了城鎮(zhèn)居民支付封建稅的義務(wù)。相反，他們可以將自己的稅收用于貨物運(yùn)輸。商人公會(huì)也對(duì)他們自己居住的社區(qū)進(jìn)行回饋，規(guī)定其成員為神職人員和窮人提供食物、酒和錢等慈善禮物。城鎮(zhèn)的政治階層通常來(lái)自于商人行會(huì)，隨著皇室特許狀，當(dāng)?shù)亟⒘说胤椒ㄍィ粋€(gè)新的、強(qiáng)大的中產(chǎn)階級(jí)出現(xiàn)了。類似的模式在其他歐洲國(guó)家也在發(fā)生并一直持續(xù)發(fā)展。

手工業(yè)行會(huì)

From the 12th century in France and Italy, 'craft' guilds began to form which were associations of master workers in craft industries. Cities like Milan, Florence and Toulouse had such guilds for food producers and leather workers. Some of the earliest craft guilds in England were guilds of weavers, especially in London and Oxford. Other craft guilds eventually included associations of cutlers (makers of cutlery), haberdashers (dealers in goods needed for sewing and weaving), dyers, bakers, saddlers, masons, specialists in metal goods such as blacksmiths, armourers, locksmiths and jewellers, and many others covering all aspects of daily life. Some guilds were based on the materials their members worked with rather than the end product so that, in France, for example, there were separate guilds for makers of buckles depending on whether they used brass or copper. So, too, guilds of the makers of prayer beads were distinguished by which material they used to make their beads, whether it be bone, amber, jet or whatever. Each guild was managed by a small group of individuals known as guildmasters who were assisted by a body of jurors whenever there were disputes amongst members.

? ? ? ? ? 從12世紀(jì)開(kāi)始，在法國(guó)和意大利，手工業(yè)行會(huì)開(kāi)始形成，它是工人師傅們的行會(huì)。米蘭、佛羅倫薩和圖盧茲等城市都有這樣的食品生產(chǎn)者與皮革工人的行會(huì)。英國(guó)最早的手工業(yè)行會(huì)是織工行會(huì)，特別是在倫敦和牛津。其他手工業(yè)行會(huì)發(fā)展到后面，包括刀匠（餐具制造商）、縫衣匠（縫紉和編織所需物品的經(jīng)銷商）、染色師、面包師、馬鞍工、石匠、金屬制品專家（如鐵匠、軍械師、鎖匠和珠寶商）以及其他許多涵蓋日常生活各個(gè)方面的行會(huì)。有些行會(huì)是根據(jù)其成員所使用的材料而不是最終產(chǎn)品來(lái)決定的，例如，在法國(guó)，根據(jù)工匠使用的是黃銅還是銅，扣子制造者分屬不同的行會(huì)。同樣，祈福珠制造商的公會(huì)也是根據(jù)他們用來(lái)制作珠子的材料來(lái)區(qū)分的，無(wú)論是骨質(zhì)、琥珀、黑玉（煤玉、黑碳石）還是其他。每個(gè)行會(huì)都由一小群人管理，他們被稱為行會(huì)會(huì)長(zhǎng)，當(dāng)行會(huì)成員之間發(fā)生糾紛時(shí)，他們會(huì)得到陪審員的協(xié)助。

As this class of skilled workers with their own businesses became ever richer so the entry into a guild became more difficult as those with privileges sought to keep out those without them. On the other hand, there was another reason to limit entry: to maintain the high standards of skill of a particular profession. For this reason, many guilds insisted on an entrance fee which went towards the apprenticeship of the new member but also paid for the maintenance of the meeting place of members, the Guildhall, administrative costs, and health services for members if and when required. In addition, the guilds could organise festivals and pay funeral costs for its members or give financial aid to the widows and orphans of deceased members.

? ? ? ? ? 隨著擁有自己生意的技術(shù)工人階級(jí)變得越來(lái)越富有，后來(lái)者進(jìn)入行會(huì)變得更加困難，因?yàn)槟切碛刑貦?quán)的人試圖將沒(méi)有特權(quán)的人拒之門外。另一方面，還有一個(gè)限制進(jìn)入的原因：保持特定行業(yè)的高標(biāo)準(zhǔn)技能。出于這個(gè)原因，許多行會(huì)堅(jiān)持收取入會(huì)費(fèi)，用于支付新成員的學(xué)徒費(fèi)用，同時(shí)也用于維護(hù)成員的聚會(huì)場(chǎng)所——市政廳，支付行政費(fèi)用，以及在需要時(shí)為成員提供醫(yī)療服務(wù)。此外，行會(huì)還會(huì)組織節(jié)日活動(dòng)，或?yàn)槠涑蓡T支付葬禮費(fèi)用，為已故成員的遺孀和孤兒提供財(cái)政援助。

Craft guilds were, as noted, particularly keen to make sure their members' products were of a high enough quality and the weights, dimensions and materials or ingredients of goods all met the current industry standards. Even such workers as bakers could face random checks on their bread by the guildmasters and jurors, as this extract on Parisian bakers illustrates:

If the master determines that the bread is not adequate, he can confiscate all the rest of it, even that which is in the oven. and if there are several types of bread in a window, the master will have each one assessed. And those which are found to be too small, the master and jurors will have them donated to charity. (Reglemens, quoted in Singman, 233)

? ? ? ? ? 如前所述，手工業(yè)行會(huì)特別熱衷于確保其成員的產(chǎn)品具有足夠高的質(zhì)量，商品的重量、尺寸、材料或成分都符合行業(yè)標(biāo)準(zhǔn)。即使是面包師，也可能面臨行會(huì)會(huì)長(zhǎng)和陪審員對(duì)其面包的抽查，這段關(guān)于巴黎面包師的節(jié)選說(shuō)明了這一點(diǎn)：

? ? ? ? ? 如果師傅確定面包不合格，他可以沒(méi)收所有剩下的面包，甚至是在爐子里的面包。如果一個(gè)窗口里有幾種面包，師傅會(huì)讓每一種面包都接受評(píng)估。而那些被發(fā)現(xiàn)太小的面包，主人和陪審員會(huì)讓面包師捐給慈善機(jī)構(gòu)。(Reglemens, 引自Singman, 233)

Quality was further maintained by regulating apprenticeships which had to be of a minimum duration and with a master who had proven skills at their craft. After several years of training apprentices then worked for a master. To become a master one had to present a 'masterpiece' to the guild's hierarchy which showed that the worker had acquired the necessary skills in their particular craft. There was also a financial burden as the title of master was only given to those able to fund their own workshop, tools and a celebratory banquet.

? ? ? ? ? 通過(guò)規(guī)范學(xué)徒制來(lái)進(jìn)一步保持商品質(zhì)量，學(xué)徒制必須有最短結(jié)業(yè)期限，而且要有一個(gè)在工藝上被證明有能力的師傅。經(jīng)過(guò)幾年的培訓(xùn)后，學(xué)徒們開(kāi)始為大師工作。學(xué)徒想要成為大師，必須向公會(huì)的高層提交一份“杰作”，表明自己已經(jīng)獲得了特定工藝的必要技能。他們還面臨著一個(gè)經(jīng)濟(jì)負(fù)擔(dān)，因?yàn)榇髱煹念^銜只給那些能夠資助自己的車間、工具和慶祝宴會(huì)的人。

The advantage to guild members of all these rules, besides maintaining public confidence in their products, was that they could control competition and be exempt from local taxes, although a producer could not undercut the prices of fellow guild members. Additional rules that protected members from each other included not poaching a customer from another member's shop or criticising the produce of a fellow member (this was especially relevant to cooks), not working on religious holidays or, in some cases, not working after dark.

? ? ? ? ? 所有規(guī)則對(duì)行會(huì)成員的好處，除了維持公眾對(duì)其產(chǎn)品的信心外，還在于他們可以控制競(jìng)爭(zhēng)，并免除地方稅，盡管生產(chǎn)商不能壓低行會(huì)成員的價(jià)格。保護(hù)成員之間的其他規(guī)則包括：不從其他成員的商店挖走顧客或批評(píng)其他成員的產(chǎn)品（這與廚師特別相關(guān)）；不在宗教節(jié)日工作，或在某些情況下，不在天黑后工作。

Other parts of the industry that a guild controlled included wages and the conditions of sale of the product. In effect, then, a guild established a monopoly on all aspects of a particular craft and their control of wages was especially significant when labour became short under such conditions as plagues or famines. Under normal circumstances, a labour shortage would mean a rise in wages for labourers but the guilds often ensured this did not happen (and so make their goods more expensive to sell). Ordinary workers were even prohibited from forming their own associations and this sometimes led to riots and revolts, particularly violent ones breaking out repeatedly in Flanders and Florence, for example, in the 14th century.

? ? ? ? ? 行會(huì)控制行業(yè)的其他部分包括工資與產(chǎn)品的銷售條件。實(shí)際上，一個(gè)行會(huì)建立了對(duì)某一特定工藝所有方面的壟斷，當(dāng)在瘟疫或饑荒等情況下出現(xiàn)勞動(dòng)力短缺時(shí)，他們對(duì)工資的控制尤其重要。在正常情況下，勞動(dòng)力短缺意味著勞動(dòng)者的工資增加，但行會(huì)往往確保這種情況不會(huì)發(fā)生（從而使他們的商品賣得更貴）。普通工人甚至被禁止組建自己的行會(huì)，這有時(shí)會(huì)導(dǎo)致暴亂和起義，例如，14世紀(jì)在佛蘭德斯和佛羅倫薩就多次爆發(fā)暴力事件。

行會(huì)對(duì)社會(huì)及婦女的影響

Guilds, especially the merchant guilds, helped produce a rich middle class in medieval society as merchants prospered and began to buy what has always been regarded as a badge of the aristocratic elite: land and property. These nouveaux riches may not have been fully accepted into high society but they themselves began to carve out their own unique place in the social order by distancing themselves from everyone below them. Many guilds, even craft guilds, only accepted new members if they were the sons of existing ones or if one could gain the sponsorship of a master who would take them on as an apprentice. Masters were often biased towards relatives and membership fees were higher for those outside the community so that many guilds, in effect, produced hereditary professions. Further, by stipulating that masters owned their own means of production in the form of their workshop and tools, guilds thus created a permanent class divide between owners and labourers.

? ? ? ? ? 行會(huì)，尤其是商人行會(huì)，有助于在中世紀(jì)社會(huì)產(chǎn)生一個(gè)富有的中產(chǎn)階級(jí)，因?yàn)樯倘藗兎睒s起來(lái)，開(kāi)始購(gòu)買一直被視為貴族精英的徽章：土地與財(cái)產(chǎn)。這些新貴可能沒(méi)有被上流社會(huì)完全接受，但他們自己開(kāi)始通過(guò)與下面的人保持距離，在社會(huì)秩序中開(kāi)辟自己獨(dú)特的位置。許多行會(huì)，甚至是手工業(yè)行會(huì)，只有當(dāng)新成員是現(xiàn)有行會(huì)的兒子，或能獲得大師的贊助，并收他們?yōu)閷W(xué)徒時(shí)，才接受他們。師傅們往往偏向于親屬，而社區(qū)外的從業(yè)者，會(huì)費(fèi)也較高。因此許多行會(huì)實(shí)際上產(chǎn)生了世襲的職業(yè)。此外，通過(guò)規(guī)定師傅擁有自己的生產(chǎn)資料，即他們的工場(chǎng)和工具，生產(chǎn)資料所有者與勞動(dòng)者之間逐漸形成了一道永久的階級(jí)鴻溝。

As guilds made the rules and decided the wages it became difficult for ordinary workers to protect their rights and own interests. Strikes by textile labourers in the city of Ghent in 1274, for example, resulted in business owners agreeing with those in neighbouring towns not to give work to strikers. However, it is important to remember that in medieval societies there was less of a conflict between wealth and labour than there was between rival industries and towns. In this sense, guilds may well have actually helped make medieval society, at least in larger towns, more cohesive and stable. Finally, one aspect of society which sprang from educational guilds and helped, at least eventually, to allow some people a means to climb the social ladder, was the 22 universities of medieval western Europe.

? ? ? ? ? 由于行會(huì)制定規(guī)則和決定工資，普通工人很難維護(hù)自己的權(quán)益。例如，1274年根特市（比利時(shí)）紡織工人的罷工，促使當(dāng)?shù)仄髽I(yè)主與鄰近城鎮(zhèn)的企業(yè)主達(dá)成協(xié)議，不給罷工者工作。然而，在中世紀(jì)的社會(huì)中，財(cái)富和勞動(dòng)力之間的沖突比敵對(duì)行業(yè)與城鎮(zhèn)之間的沖突要少。因此，行會(huì)實(shí)際上有助于使中世紀(jì)社會(huì)(至少在較大的城鎮(zhèn))更有凝聚力和穩(wěn)定性。最后，社會(huì)中最重要的一個(gè)方面是從教育行會(huì)中產(chǎn)生的，它讓一些人獲得了攀登社會(huì)階梯的手段，這就是中世紀(jì)西歐的22所大學(xué)。

One section of society that was treated unequally by guilds was women. There were almost no specific guilds for women and the institutions were always dominated by men (there were a few exceptions such as the women's silk guilds in Paris and the gold spinners of Genoa). Even a profession dominated by women such as midwives did not have their own guild but belonged to that of the surgeons. Women, although they did frequently work alongside men in such industries as spinning, metal polishing and food preparation, only very rarely achieved master status and some guilds such as the pepperers, drapers and (eventually) brewers banned women from becoming apprentices. Legally, women were usually under a male relative's guardianship or their husband's. Only if a woman's fellow-guild member husband died could she enjoy some freedom. A widow could carry on a deceased master's business, for example, and have the full rights of guild membership if she had once worked alongside her husband and she did not remarry.

? ? ? ? ? 社會(huì)上有一部分人受到行會(huì)的不平等對(duì)待，那就是婦女。幾乎沒(méi)有專門針對(duì)婦女的行會(huì)，這些機(jī)構(gòu)總是由男性主導(dǎo)（也有少數(shù)例外，如巴黎的婦女絲綢行會(huì)和熱那亞的金紡廠）。即使是婦女主導(dǎo)的職業(yè)，如助產(chǎn)士，也沒(méi)有自己的行會(huì)，她們屬于外科醫(yī)生的行會(huì)。盡管婦女經(jīng)常在紡紗、金屬拋光和食品準(zhǔn)備等行業(yè)中與男子一起工作，但她們很少獲得大師級(jí)地位，一些行會(huì)，如胡椒匠、窗簾匠和啤酒匠，禁止婦女成為學(xué)徒。在法律上，婦女通常受男性親屬或丈夫的監(jiān)護(hù)。只有當(dāng)一個(gè)女人的同業(yè)丈夫去世時(shí)，她才能享受一些自由。例如，一個(gè)寡婦可以繼承已故主人的生意，如果她曾經(jīng)與丈夫一起工作，并且沒(méi)有再婚，她就可以擁有公會(huì)成員的全部權(quán)利。

演變——“地方政府”

In London, the wealthiest craft guilds, known as the livery companies, became very powerful political players in the city. Indeed, in many towns across medieval Europe, it became almost impossible to build a political career if one was not a member of a guild. The livery companies of London eventually morphed into major financial institutions. Across the waters in Paris, water merchants monopolised trade on the River Seine and had authority over such matters as petty crimes and the city's quotas of salt and grain. In 1260, four of the jurors of the water merchants guild were appointed as city magistrates. In 13th-century Germany several guilds, including ones from different towns, got together and formed an organisation known as the Hanse. These Hanse would then join and form the Hanseatic League of almost 200 trading cities by the middle of the next century. In contemporary Florence, the main guilds were permanently represented on the city council.

? ? ? ? ? 在倫敦，最富有的手工業(yè)行會(huì)，也就是所謂的倫敦同業(yè)公會(huì)，成為城市中非常強(qiáng)大的政治角色。事實(shí)上，在中世紀(jì)歐洲的許多城鎮(zhèn)，如果一個(gè)人不是行會(huì)成員，那他幾乎不可能建立自己的政治生涯。倫敦同業(yè)公會(huì)最終演變?yōu)橹饕慕鹑跈C(jī)構(gòu)。在對(duì)岸的巴黎，水商人壟斷了塞納河上的貿(mào)易，并對(duì)諸如輕微犯罪和城市的鹽與谷物配額等事務(wù)擁有權(quán)力。1260年，水商人公會(huì)的四名陪審員被任命為城市治安官。在13世紀(jì)的德國(guó)，有幾個(gè)行會(huì)，包括來(lái)自不同城鎮(zhèn)的行會(huì)，聚在一起，形成了一個(gè)被稱為漢薩同盟的組織。一些商人隨后加入了漢薩同盟，這個(gè)組織在14世紀(jì)中期遍布了近200個(gè)貿(mào)易城市（14世紀(jì)晚期—15世紀(jì)早期達(dá)到鼎盛，加盟城市最多達(dá)到160個(gè)）。在當(dāng)時(shí)的佛羅倫薩，主要行會(huì)在市議會(huì)中都有常設(shè)代表。

Eventually, then, and across Europe, many guilds and functions of local government became inseparable as the wealthier middle class began to take some political power from the ruling aristocracy. Lower down the social ladder, the craft guilds permitted skilled craftworkers to protect their own industry and provide mutual social aid while at the bottom, the unskilled workers continued, as always, their fight for uncertain and seasonal employment which often involved moving to wherever such work could be found.

? ? ? ? ? 最終，在整個(gè)中世紀(jì)歐洲，隨著較富裕的新中產(chǎn)階級(jí)開(kāi)始從統(tǒng)治貴族手中奪取一些政治權(quán)力，許多行會(huì)和地方政府的職能變得密不可分。在較低的社會(huì)階層上，手工業(yè)行會(huì)允許熟練的手工業(yè)者保護(hù)他們自己的行業(yè)并提供社會(huì)互助；而在底層，非熟練工人一如既往地繼續(xù)為不確定和季節(jié)性的工作而奮斗，他們往往需要在任何可以找到工作的地方生活。