Clove, nutmeg, and mace are native to only a handful of tiny islands in the middle of the vast Indonesian archipelago – cloves on five Maluku Islands (the Moluccas) about 1250 km (778 mi) west of New Guinea, and nutmeg on the ten Banda Islands approximately 2,000 km (1,243 mi) east of Java. Despite their popularity in European cuisine, the origin of the spices was unknown to Europeans until the early 16th century.

? ? ? ? ? 丁香、肉豆蔻和梅斯原產(chǎn)于廣闊的印度尼西亞群島中間少數(shù)幾個小島。丁香在新幾內(nèi)亞以西約1250公里（778英里）的馬魯古群島（摩鹿加群島，由五個小島組成），肉豆蔻在爪哇以東約2000公里（1243英里）的班達群島（由十個小火山島組成）。盡管這些香料在歐洲菜肴中很受歡迎，但直到16世紀初，歐洲人還不知道這些香料從何而來。

The secret was finally broken by the Portuguese in 1512, soon after they discovered the route to the Indian Ocean. After beating back a threat from the Spanish, the Portuguese Empire took over most of the spice trade and held sway for almost a century. Eventually, the Dutch and English made it a three-way struggle for control, which the Dutch won, and they dominated the spice trade until the late 18th century.

? ? ? ? ? 這個秘密在1512年葡萄牙人發(fā)現(xiàn)通往印度洋的路線后不久被揭曉。在挫敗了西班牙人的威脅后，葡萄牙帝國接管了大部分香料貿(mào)易，并在近一個世紀內(nèi)保持著對香料的控制。最終，荷蘭人和英國人使之成為三方爭奪控制權(quán)的斗爭，荷蘭人贏了，他們主導(dǎo)了香料貿(mào)易，直到18世紀末。

第一批抵達香料群島的歐洲人

For over a thousand years, the entry of clove, nutmeg, and mace into world trade was dependent on Indonesian sailors, who carried them to the Malay Peninsula, Java, and Sumatra, where Indian and Arabian sailors accessed them and distributed them across the rest of the Indian Ocean. The Arabs also carried the spices through the Red Sea to Alexandria or via the Persian Gulf to Levantine ports, from where Venetian traders took them to Europe. The enterprising Arabs held the location of the Spice Islands secret from the Europeans for centuries, keeping the price exorbitant.

? ? ? ? ? 一千多年來，丁香、肉豆蔻和梅斯進入世界貿(mào)易依賴于印度尼西亞水手，他們把香料運到馬來半島、爪哇和蘇門答臘，印度和阿拉伯水手在那里購買它們，并把它們分銷到印度洋各地。阿拉伯人還將香料通過紅海運到亞歷山大，或通過波斯灣運到黎凡特港口，威尼斯商人從那里將它們運往歐洲。富有進取心的阿拉伯人將香料島的位置對歐洲人保密了幾個世紀，使香料價格在歐洲高居不下。

It was not until the early 1500s that the Europeans learned whence the spices came, not long after Vasco da Gama (1469-1524) discovered the route around Africa to India and Southeast Asia. The Portuguese Viceroy of India (Estado da India), Albuquerque, was told of the Spice Islands by sailors in the port of Malacca on the Malay Peninsula, which had been for centuries the central meeting ground of Indian, Arab, and Chinese merchants. Albuquerque hired local guides and sent ships on an exploratory mission under the command of António de Abreu and his lieutenant Francisco Serr?o. They arrived in the Bandas in 1512 and were able to fill the hulls of their ships with cloves, nutmeg, and mace.

? ? ? ? ? 直到15世紀初，在瓦斯科·達伽馬（1469-1524）發(fā)現(xiàn)了繞過非洲到印度和東南亞的路線后不久，歐洲人才知道香料的原產(chǎn)地。葡萄牙印度總督阿爾布克爾克從馬來半島的馬六甲港的水手那里得知了香料群島；幾個世紀以來，馬六甲港一直是印度、阿拉伯和中國商人的主要聚集地。阿爾布克爾克雇用了當?shù)氐南驅(qū)?，并派船在亞比爾魯和他的副官弗朗西斯科·塞拉奧的指揮下進行探索。他們于1512年抵達班達斯，并在船上裝滿了丁香、肉豆蔻和梅斯。

Abreu was then successful in returning to Malacca, but Serr?o's overstuffed ship floundered and broke up on a reef. He and his shipwrecked crew were rescued and brought to the Maluku Island of Ternate by the local Sultan Sirrullah, who hoped to use Serr?o to ally himself with the powerful Portuguese and tip the balance of power in the area. At that time, Ternate was in fierce competition with the nearby island of Tidor. Serr?o became Sirrullah's personal advisor, led a band of mercenaries, and remained on the island until his death.

? ? ? ? ? 亞比爾魯成功地返回了馬六甲，但塞拉奧那艘裝得過滿的船卻觸礁沉沒了。他和遇難船員被救起，被當?shù)氐奶K丹Sirrullah帶到了馬魯古島的特爾納特（德那第），他希望通過塞拉奧與強大的葡萄牙人結(jié)盟，改變該地區(qū)的權(quán)力平衡。當時，特爾納特島與附近的提多島競爭激烈。塞拉奧成為瑟魯拉的私人顧問，率領(lǐng)一隊雇傭兵，并一直留在島上，直到他去世。

The second group of Europeans to arrive in the Spice Islands were the remnants of Ferdinand Magellan's (c. 1480-1521) crew after he had lost his life in the Philippines. Their coming began a competition between Portugal and Spain for control of the Spice Islands, whose legal ownership was very much up in the air. The Treaty of Tordesillas, signed in 1494 between the two Iberian countries, had divided any newly discovered lands between them along a meridian west of the Cape Verde Islands but did not establish a line of demarcation on the other side of the world. This meant that both countries could lay claim to the Spice Islands, as long as Portugal traveled there from the east and Spain from the west.

? ? ? ? ? 第二批到達香料群島的歐洲人是費爾南多·麥哲倫（約1480-1521）在菲律賓喪生后，艦隊殘余的船員。他們的到來開始了葡萄牙和西班牙之間對香料群島控制權(quán)的競爭，而香料群島的法律所有權(quán)是懸而未決的。這兩個伊比利亞國家于1494年簽署的《托德西利亞斯條約》將任何新發(fā)現(xiàn)的土地沿佛得角群島以西的子午線劃分，但沒有在世界的另一端確立一條分界線。這意味著，只要葡萄牙從東邊去，西班牙從西邊去，兩個國家都可以對香料群島所有權(quán)提出要求。

Magellan's remaining two ships sailed on after his death, following a rather haphazard route towards Tidor, and arrived there on 5 November 1521. The Victoria continued towards home on 21 December, while the Trinidad lingered for repairs. Both ships were in dismal condition, and the Victoria barely survived the passage around the stormy tip of Africa, and along the way half its crew died of scurvy and starvation. On 6 September 1522, the remaining crew finally made it back to Spain. By then, only 18 of the original 270 men who had left with Magellan remained. Still, there were enough spices in the hold for the journey to be highly profitable.

? ? ? ? ? 麥哲倫死后，剩下的兩艘船繼續(xù)航行，他們沿著一條相當雜亂的路線駛向蒂多雷，并于1521年11月5日抵達。12月21日，"維多利亞號 "繼續(xù)向家駛?cè)?，?"特立尼達號 "則在修理。兩艘船的狀況都很糟糕，"維多利亞號 "在繞過非洲的暴風口后勉強幸存，沿途一半的船員死于壞血病和饑餓。1522年9月6日，剩下的船員終于回到了西班牙。當時，與麥哲倫一起出發(fā)的原270人中只剩下18人。不過，船艙里有足夠的香料，使這次旅行有了很大的收益。

The Trinidad, captained by Gonzalo Gómez de Espinosa, waited until 16 April 1522 to leave. Fearing the route around the Cape, the Trinidad made its way north searching for easterlies until the battering of frigid storms, starvation and scurvy forced de Espinosa to turn back to the Maluku Islands seven months later. As he approached Ternate, he found to his horror that a fleet of seven Portuguese ships led by Antonio de Brito had arrived, looking to take control of the Spice Islands.

? ? ? ? ? 由貢薩洛·戈麥斯·德·埃斯皮諾薩（Gonzalo Gómez de Espinosa）擔任船長的 "特立尼達"號一直等到1522年4月16日才離開。由于害怕繞過海角的路線，"特立尼達"號一路向北尋找東風，直到七個月后，寒冷的風暴、饑餓和壞血病的打擊迫使埃斯皮諾薩折回馬魯古群島。當他接近特爾納特時，他驚恐地發(fā)現(xiàn)一支由Antonio de Brito率領(lǐng)的七艘葡萄牙船隊已經(jīng)抵達，葡萄牙人希望控制香料群島。

De Brito sent an armed party to capture the Trinidad:

His soldiers boarded Trinidad expecting to overwhelm the crew but were repelled by the grievous spectacle of men near death, a foul and unhealthy stench that no one dared to brave, and a ship on the verge of sinking. In spite of the crew's condition, De Brito took them as captives and made de Espinosa and his debilitated crew build a fortress at Ternate with the timbers of the Victoria. They were then further exported as forced laborers at several ports across the Indian Ocean. Only commander Espinosa and two other crew members ever got back to Spain. (Bergreen, 180)

? ? ? ? ? Antonio de Brito派出一支武裝隊伍去占領(lǐng)特立尼達號：

? ? ? ? ? 他的士兵們登上特立尼達號，期望能壓制船員，但卻被眼前的悲慘景象勸退了，船上的人瀕臨死亡，惡臭難聞，沒有人敢冒這個險，而這艘船也瀕臨沉沒。盡管船員們的狀況不佳，但Antonio de Brito還是把他們當作了俘虜，并讓埃斯皮諾薩和他虛弱的船員用維多利亞號的木頭在特爾納特建造了一座堡壘。然后，他們又被作為強迫勞動者運往印度洋的幾個港口。只有指揮官埃斯皮諾薩和其他兩名船員回到了西班牙。(伯格林，180)

葡萄牙人控制特爾納特島的時期

The sultan of Ternate allowed the Portuguese to build a fort in 1522 and establish a trading colony, but the relationship between the Ternates and Portuguese quickly grew strained. Over the next half-century, a series of Portuguese governors would be sent to this distant outpost who grew increasingly greedy and brutal. The sultans of Ternate continued to serve at the whims of the Portuguese for decades, but by the mid-16th century began to assert themselves. One major figure was Sultan Hairun who reigned from 1535 to 1570. He started as a Portuguese puppet, and at one point even converted to Christianity, but he became increasingly agitated by the brutality of the Portuguese and eventually aligned himself with the Muslims of Tidor. He was assassinated in 1570 and was replaced by his son Babullah, who led an uprising supported by the Sultanate of Tidor and Muslims from as far away as Aceh and Turkey. He and his followers laid siege to the Portuguese fort and after four years finally took it and rid themselves of the Portuguese. From then on Ternate was a strong, fiercely Islamic, and anti-Portuguese state.

? ? ? ? ? 特爾納特的蘇丹允許葡萄牙人在1522年建造一座堡壘并建立貿(mào)易殖民地，但特爾納特人和葡萄牙人之間的關(guān)系很快就變得緊張起來。在接下來的半個世紀里，許多葡萄牙總督被派往這個遙遠的前哨站，他們變得越來越貪婪和野蠻。幾十年來，特爾納特的蘇丹們繼續(xù)聽從葡萄牙人的安排，但到了16世紀中期，他們開始堅持自己的立場。一個主要人物是海倫蘇丹，他從1535年到1570年在位。他一開始是葡萄牙人的傀儡，甚至一度皈依基督教，但他對葡萄牙人的殘暴行為越來越不滿，最終與提多的穆斯林結(jié)盟。他在1570年被暗殺，由他的兒子巴布拉取代，他領(lǐng)導(dǎo)的起義得到了提多蘇丹國以及遠在亞齊和土耳其的穆斯林的支持。他和他的追隨者們圍攻了葡萄牙人的堡壘，四年后終于拿下了堡壘，并擺脫了葡萄牙人的控制。從那時起，特爾納特成為一個強大的、激烈的伊斯蘭教國家，并對葡萄牙保持敵意。

西班牙方面的努力

Soon after the arrival of the Victoria in Spain, Charles I of Spain (r. 1516-1556) sent a second expedition to the Spice Islands, led by García Jofre de Loaísa. They were given three goals:

1.?????? seek and rescue the Trinidad, which had not yet returned

2.?????? colonize the Spice Islands

3.?????? find the location of the mythical land of Ophir, mentioned in the Bible as the source of the silver, gold, and gems used to decorate Solomon's Temple.

? ? ? ? ? 維多利亞號抵達西班牙后不久，西班牙查理一世（r. 1516-1556）就向香料群島派出了第二支探險隊，由加西亞·霍夫雷·代·羅阿西率領(lǐng)。他們有三個目標：

1.尋找并拯救尚未返回的特立尼達號

2.殖民香料群島

3.找到神話中奧菲爾大陸的位置，《圣經(jīng)》中提到它是用來裝飾所羅門圣殿的金銀和寶石的來源地。

Loaísa sailed south along the African coastline, then west to Brazil and down the continent before heading to the Spice Islands around the tip of South America. His fleet suffered extreme weather in the Strait of Magellan, and two ships were lost. The raging storms continued in the Pacific and four more ships got separated. Only one galleon, the Santa Maria de la Victoria, reached the Spice Islands in September 1526, and by this time Loaísa had died. The survivors were able to establish a fortress on Tidor but had to abandon their now unseaworthy ship, leaving them no way to get news back to Spain.

? ? ? ? ? 羅阿西沿非洲海岸線向南航行，然后向西到巴西，沿著大陸向南航行，然后前往香料群島。他的船隊在麥哲倫海峽遭遇極端天氣，兩艘船丟失。太平洋上的風暴繼續(xù)肆虐，又有四艘船失散。只有一艘大帆船，即圣瑪麗亞·德拉·維多利亞號，于1526年9月抵達香料群島，此時羅阿西已經(jīng)去世。幸存者在蒂多雷島建立一個堡壘，但不得不放棄船只，這使他們沒有辦法將消息傳回西班牙。

With no news of the Loaísa expedition, Charles sent another fleet to the Maluku Islands in 1526 commanded by Sebastian Cabot, who got no further than the west coast of South America before he quit the search and instead explored the interior of the Rio de la Plata. Charles then ordered Hernán Cortés in New Spain (Mexico) to send a rescue mission. Cortés sent a three-ship fleet, but only one of these made it to Tidor, and while it did find the survivors, it could not find favorable winds to get back across the Pacific and was captured by the Portuguese.

? ? ? ? ? ?由于沒有羅阿西探險隊的消息，查爾斯于1526年向馬魯古群島派出了另一支艦隊，由塞巴斯蒂安·卡伯特指揮。他沒有走到南美洲的西海岸，就放棄了搜尋，轉(zhuǎn)而探索拉普拉塔河。查爾斯隨后命令新西班牙（墨西哥）的埃爾南·科爾特斯?派出一個救援團。科爾特斯派出了一支三艘船的艦隊，但其中只有一艘到達了蒂多德島，雖然他確實找到了幸存者，但船只無法找到有利的風向來穿越太平洋，這艘船被葡萄牙人俘虜了。

Finally, with several armadas lost or unreported, the Spanish sovereign reached the conclusion that the Spice Islands were not worth his effort, and in 1529 decided to make a deal with the Portuguese. In the resulting Treaty of Zaragoza, the Spaniards sold their rights to the Maluku Islands to the Portuguese for 350,000 ducats, and a dividing line between territories was fixed at 17° east of the Maluku Islands. There was an escape clause that allowed the Spanish to have the islands back if they reimbursed the Portuguese, but this never happened. In 1580, the Iberian Union joined the two kingdoms and their Indian Ocean colonies together.

? ? ? ? ? 最后，隨著幾支艦隊的丟失或失去音信，西班牙君主得出結(jié)論，香料群島不值得他付出更多的努力，于是在1529年決定與葡萄牙人進行交易。在由此達成的《薩拉戈薩條約》中，西班牙人以35萬金幣的價格將其對馬魯古群島的權(quán)利賣給了葡萄牙人，領(lǐng)土之間的分界線被固定在馬魯古群島以東17°。有一個免責條款，條約允許西班牙人在償還葡萄牙人的情況下拿回這些島嶼，但這從未發(fā)生。1580年，伊比利亞聯(lián)盟將兩個王國和它們的印度洋殖民地連在一起。

荷蘭人的征服與荷蘭東印度公司?

For a century, the Portuguese Empire reigned supreme in the Indian Ocean. It was not until 1595 that nine Amsterdam merchants joined together and organized the first Dutch expedition. They chose Cornelis de Houtman to lead it and provided him with four ships. The plan was to follow the traditional Portuguese route around the Cape of Good Hope and then head to Bantam, the main pepper port of Java, and then search for the Spice Islands. The whole affair proved to be a major fiasco, filled with bloody infighting. They never made it to the Spice Islands and brought back very few spices.

? ? ? ? ? 一個世紀以來，葡萄牙帝國在印度洋稱王稱霸。直到1595年，九個阿姆斯特丹商人聯(lián)合起來，組織了第一次荷蘭探險隊。他們選擇了科內(nèi)利斯·代·豪特曼（Cornelis de Houtman）來領(lǐng)導(dǎo)這次探險，并為他提供了四艘船。他的計劃是沿著傳統(tǒng)的葡萄牙路線繞過好望角，然后前往爪哇的主要胡椒港口班丹，然后尋找香料群島。事實證明，整個事件是一場大慘敗，充滿了血腥的內(nèi)訌。他們從未到達過香料群島，帶回的香料也很少。

A second expedition was sent out in 1598 with six ships, led by Jacob van Neck, with Wybrand van Warwijck and Jacob van Heemskerk, each commanding a ship. Van Neck was a shrewd manager and returned to the Netherlands in July 1599 with four ships loaded with spices. Van Warwijck's ship set off for Ternate, while van Heemskerk's sailed to the Banda Islands. Van Warwijck reached Ternate without incident, was received well, loaded his ship with spices, and headed home, reaching Amsterdam in September 1600. Van Heemskerk got a much cooler reception; however, with lavish gifts and diplomacy, he finally won the trust of the Bandanese and was able to fill his ship with nutmeg. He arrived safely home in late 1600.

? ? ? ? ? 第二次遠征是在1598年，由雅各布·科內(nèi)利松·范·內(nèi)克率領(lǐng)的六艘船出征，威布蘭德·范·沃韋克和雅各布·范黑姆斯克爾克各指揮一艘船。雅各布·科內(nèi)利松·范·內(nèi)克是個精明的管理者，他于1599年7月帶著四艘裝滿香料的船回到了荷蘭。威布蘭德·范·沃韋克的船出發(fā)前往特爾納特，而雅各布·范黑姆斯克爾克的船則駛向班達群島。威布蘭德·范·沃韋克順利抵達特爾納特，在那里他們受到了良好的接待，并將船裝滿了香料，然后返航，于1600年9月抵達阿姆斯特丹。雅各布·范黑姆斯克爾克得到的待遇要冷淡得多；然而，憑借豪華的禮物和外交手段，他終于贏得了班達人的信任，并得以在船上裝滿肉豆蔻。他于1600年末安全地回到了荷蘭。

Following van Neck's successful venture, dozens of additional expeditions made the trip to the Spice Islands. To consolidate resources, the government formed the Dutch East India Company (Verenigde Oost-Indische Compagnie or VOC) in 1602, which was given the power to govern the East and was allowed to run its own shipyards, build forts, keep armies, and make treaties. The first VOC fleet sailed on 18 December 1603, and within a few years, the Company had established a network of hundreds of bases across Asia. By 1605 there were factories on Java, Sumatra, Borneo, the Spice Islands, the Malay Peninsula, and the mainland of India. The whole operation was ruled by a Governor-General who operated essentially as a head of state.

? ? ? ? ? 在雅各布·科內(nèi)利松·范·內(nèi)克的成功冒險之后，又有幾十支探險隊前往香料群島。為了整合資源，政府于1602年成立了荷蘭東印度公司（Verenigde Oost-Indische Compagnie或VOC），該公司被賦予管理東方的權(quán)力，并被允許經(jīng)營自己的造船廠、建造堡壘、保持軍隊和簽訂條約。第一支VOC艦隊于1603年12月18日起航，在幾年內(nèi)，該公司在亞洲各地建立了一個由數(shù)百個基地組成的網(wǎng)絡(luò)。到1605年，在爪哇、蘇門答臘、婆羅洲、香料群島、馬來半島和印度本土都有工廠。整個行動由一位總督管理，他基本上是以國家元首的身份來運作的。

葡萄牙人的退出

In 1604, the Englishman Henry Middleton was sent to the Indian Ocean with four ships; he arrived at the west Javan port of Bantam on 21 December. Two of the ships were loaded with pepper and sent back home, while Middleton and the remaining two ships traveled to Ambon Island in the Moluccas. Upon arrival, Middleton got permission to trade by convincing the local Portuguese commander that Kings James I of England (r. 1603-1625) and Philip III of Spain (aka Philip II of Portugal, r. 1598-1621) had signed a peace treaty. This was indeed true, but Middleton could not have known this, as the treaty was signed five months after he had gone to sea. Just as they were about to begin loading the ships, an ominous sight appeared on the horizon – a VOC armada. The Dutch had sent a fleet to challenge the Portuguese control of the island, and the English had stumbled into the middle. The English beat a hasty retreat, while the Portuguese suffered a full-scale invasion. Little did Middleton know that he was about to fall into the middle of another Dutch–Portuguese confrontation.

? ? ? ? ? 1604年，英國人亨利·米德爾頓被派往印度洋，他有四艘船；他們于12月21日抵達爪哇西部的班丹港。其中兩艘船裝載了胡椒并送回國內(nèi)，而米德爾頓和其余兩艘船則前往摩鹿加群島的安汶島。抵達后，米德爾頓說服當?shù)氐钠咸蜒乐笓]官，英格蘭國王詹姆斯一世（1603-1625年）和西班牙國王菲利普三世（又稱葡萄牙國王菲利普二世，1598-1621年）已經(jīng)簽署了和平條約，從而獲得了貿(mào)易許可。這確實是事實，但米德爾頓不可能知道這一點，因為該條約是在他出海后五個月簽署的。就在他們準備開始裝船的時候，一個不祥的景象出現(xiàn)在地平線上——一支VOC艦隊。荷蘭人派了一支艦隊來挑戰(zhàn)葡萄牙人對該島的控制，而英國人則跌跌撞撞地走到了中間。英國人匆忙撤退，而當?shù)氐钠咸蜒廊藙t遭遇了荷蘭艦隊的進攻。米德爾頓不知道，他即將陷入另一場荷蘭和葡萄牙的對峙之中。

Middleton arrived at Tidore on 27 March just as the Dutch and their allies were about to attack. He was able to convince the Portuguese to allow him to fill his hulls with cloves by staying out of the war. A few days later, the Dutch did successfully take over the Spanish fort on Tidore and began the harassment of the Portuguese on Ternate. The Portuguese finally withdrew from the Maluku Islands in 1663, when it became clear that the cost of maintaining their strongholds exceeded the benefits.

? ? ? ? ? 米德爾頓于3月27日抵達蒂多德，當時荷蘭人和他們的盟友正準備進攻。他通過不參與戰(zhàn)爭，說服了葡萄牙人允許他在船上裝滿丁香。幾天后，荷蘭人果然成功占領(lǐng)了蒂多德的西班牙堡壘，并開始對特爾納特的葡萄牙人進行騷擾。葡萄牙人最終于1663年撤出了馬魯古群島，因為維持其據(jù)點的成本顯然超過了收益。

In 1607, Dutch admiral Pieter Willemszoon Verhoeff was sent with a fleet of 13 ships to capture Portuguese Malacca and then build a fort on the Banda Island of Neira. Both missions ended in failure. Verhoeff attacked Malacca but could not take the heavily fortified city. He then headed to the Banda Island of Neira. The leaders of the islands, the Orang Kaya, called a meeting to supposedly negotiate prices and instead ambushed him and two of his officers, decapitated them, and murdered another 46 Dutch soldiers. This ambush would be used repeatedly to justify Dutch oppression and ultimately the near extermination of the Bandanese. One of the men who survived the massacre was Jan Pieterszoon Coen, who carried at that time the modest title of assistant merchant. Upon his return to the Netherlands in 1610, Coen gave the company's directors a report on trade possibilities in Southeast Asia, and he would ultimately become the Director-General.

? ? ? ? ? ?1607年，荷蘭海軍上將彼得·威廉姆斯·韋爾霍夫（Pieter Willemszoon Verhoeff）被派去占領(lǐng)葡萄牙的馬六甲，然后在班達的內(nèi)拉島上建造一個堡壘。這兩次任務(wù)都以失敗告終。韋爾霍夫攻擊了馬六甲，但無法攻下這個防御森嚴的城市。然后，他前往內(nèi)拉的班達島。這些島嶼的領(lǐng)導(dǎo)人Orang Kaya召集了一次會議，據(jù)說是為了談判價格，結(jié)果卻伏擊了韋爾霍夫和他的兩名軍官，并將他們斬首，另殺害了46名荷蘭士兵。這次伏擊事件將被反復(fù)用來論證荷蘭人的壓迫和最終班達人的滅絕事件。在這次屠殺中幸存下來的人之一是揚·彼得斯佐恩·庫恩，他當時的頭銜是助理商人，很不起眼。1610年回到荷蘭后，庫恩向公司的董事們提交了一份關(guān)于東南亞貿(mào)易可能性的報告，他最終成為總干事。

英國與荷蘭的對峙

As Coen and the VOC worked to dominate the spice trade, the English tried desperately to keep a piece of the action for themselves. Coen had begun his reign as VOC director by transferring the VOC headquarters from Bantam to Jakarta and had converted the warehouse there into a fort. In 1618, Sir Thomas Dale was sent from England to break up Coen's growing monopoly, and in a pitched battle, the undermanned fleet of Coen was forced to flee to Ambon for reinforcements. While Coen was away, the sultan of Bantam also decided to enter the fray, forced the English to withdraw, and laid siege to the Dutch fort. When Coen returned in 1619, he was able to push the Bantam forces out of Jakarta, and then he burned the city to the ground. On its ashes, he built the new Dutch city of Batavia, which became the headquarters of the VOC in Southeast Asia.

? ? ? ? ? 在庫恩和荷蘭東印度公司努力主宰香料貿(mào)易的過程中，英國人拼命地想為自己保留一份基業(yè)。庫恩在開始擔任VOC主任時，將VOC總部從班丹轉(zhuǎn)移到了雅加達，并將那里的倉庫改造成了一個堡壘。1618年，托馬斯·戴爾爵士從英國被派來打破庫恩日益增長的壟斷，在一場激戰(zhàn)中，庫恩兵力不足，艦隊被迫逃往安汶尋求增援。在庫恩不在的時候，班丹的蘇丹也決定加入戰(zhàn)局，迫使英國人撤退，并圍攻荷蘭人的堡壘。1619年，當庫恩回來時，他得以將班丹的軍隊趕出雅加達，然后他將該城市燒成了灰燼。在它的灰燼上，他建立了荷蘭的新城市巴達維亞，成為VOC在東南亞的總部。

While the English and Dutch were fighting over Jakarta, another battle was raging between them on the tiny Banda Island of Run. Captain Nathaniel Courthope had reached Run in 1616 and signed a contract with the locals who accepted James I as their sovereign. Under siege by the Dutch, Courthrope held out for 1,540 days before he was killed. Ironically, Coen received word that the Dutch and English leaders back home had reached an agreement in 1620 to cooperate in the East Indies. They were to leave each other's existing trade settlements alone and cooperate against common enemies. A frustrated Coen, however, let the battle over Run play out and named a huge swath of Java as the "Jakarta Kingdom" to keep it out of English hands.

? ? ? ? ? 當英國人和荷蘭人在爭奪雅加達的時候，他們之間的另一場戰(zhàn)斗正在小小的班達島倫島（倫島是印度尼西亞摩鹿加群島班達群島中最小的島嶼之一）上激烈展開。納撒尼爾·考伯船長于1616年到達倫島，與接受詹姆斯一世為其君主的當?shù)厝撕炗喠艘环莺贤Ｔ诤商m人的圍攻下，納撒尼爾·考伯堅持了1540天才被殺死。具有諷刺意味的是，庫恩收到消息說，荷蘭和英國的領(lǐng)導(dǎo)人在1620年達成了一項協(xié)議，在東印度群島進行合作。他們將互不干涉對方現(xiàn)有的貿(mào)易定居點，并合作對付共同的敵人。然而，心灰意冷的庫恩讓倫島之戰(zhàn)繼續(xù)下去，并將爪哇的一大片土地命名為 "雅加達王國"，以防止其落入英國人手中。

In January 1621, Coen decided to make a full-scale conquest of the Banda Islands. Using Japanese mercenaries, the Dutch took the Island of Lonthor after suffering fierce local resistance that was supported by English-supplied cannon. In response, Coen, and the Dutch massacred thousands of inhabitants, replacing them with slaves from other islands and deporting some 800 inhabitants to Batavia. Only about 1,000 of the original 15,000 survived on the island.

? ? ? ? ? 1621年1月，庫恩決定對班達群島進行全面征服。荷蘭人利用日本雇傭兵，在遭受了當?shù)丶ち业牡挚购?，在英國人提供的大炮的支援下，占領(lǐng)了隆托爾島。作為回應(yīng)，庫恩和荷蘭人屠殺了數(shù)以千計的居民，用其他島嶼的奴隸代替他們，并將大約800名居民驅(qū)逐到巴達維亞。原來的15,000人中只有大約1,000人在島上幸存下來。

At this point, Coen thought the best future strategy would be to completely colonize the East Indies with Dutch settlers, who would then handle the East India trade. To sell his plan to the VOC directors, he traveled back home in 1623. While there, he was hit with a major scandal, the so-called "Amboyna Massacre" where a group of Englishmen from the small settlement of Cambello in Ambon were taken into custody by the Dutch factors, questioned, tortured, and sentenced to death. They were suspected of working with the locals in a plot to take over the Dutch settlement. Coen was not directly involved, but he was held morally responsible as the leader of the VOC, and he was temporally forbidden to return to Batavia. It was not until 1627 that he was able to go back, traveling incognito, and he died of dysentery there in 1629.

? ? ? ? ? 此時，庫恩認為未來最好的戰(zhàn)略是用荷蘭定居者完全殖民東印度群島，然后由他們來處理東印度貿(mào)易。為了向VOC的董事們推銷他的計劃，他于1623年回國旅行。在那里，他遭遇了一個重大的丑聞，即所謂的 "安博納大屠殺"，一群來自安汶的坎貝羅小定居點的英國人被荷蘭因素羈押，被審問、折磨，并判處死刑。他們被懷疑與當?shù)厝撕献?，密謀接管荷蘭定居點。庫恩沒有直接參與其中，但他作為VOC的領(lǐng)導(dǎo)人被追究道德責任，他被暫時禁止返回巴達維亞。直到1627年，他隱姓埋名，以旅行者的名義回去，并于1629年死于痢疾。

荷蘭香料壟斷的終結(jié)

Throughout the 17th and the early 18th century, the VOC held onto their near-monopoly in the clove trade through their ruthless stranglehold on the Banda Island trade. Nutmeg production in Tidore and Ternate also fell increasingly under their control. In 1652, the leaders of both islands agreed to a spice eradication program (extirpate), where they would allow, for an annual payment, the removal of all clove trees not owned by the VOC. This program was rigidly enforced by the Dutch who made regular expeditions that became notorious for their brutality.

? ? ? ? ? 在整個17世紀和18世紀初，VOC通過對班達島貿(mào)易的無情扼制，幾乎壟斷了對丁香的貿(mào)易。提多和特爾納特的肉豆蔻生產(chǎn)也受到荷蘭人的影響。1652年，這兩個島嶼的領(lǐng)導(dǎo)人同意了一項香料根除計劃（extirpate），他們將允許每年支付一定的費用，清除所有不屬于VOC的丁香樹。這個計劃由荷蘭人嚴格執(zhí)行，他們定期進行遠征，因其殘酷性而臭名昭著。

It was the French who finally broke the Dutch clove monopoly in 1770 when Pierre Poivre, a horticulturist and administrator, smuggled out some seedlings from the Spice Islands and planted them on the Isle de France (now Mauritius) and Isle Bourbon (now Réunion). In 1812, an Arab named Harmali bin Saleh transplanted cloves from Réunion to Zanzibar and established plantations which ultimately took over the bulk of world production. Zanzibar dominated the world market until 1964.

? ? ? ? ? 1770年，法國人終于打破了荷蘭人對丁香的壟斷，當時，園藝師和行政人員皮埃爾·波微從香料群島偷運出一些幼苗，并將其種植在法蘭西島（現(xiàn)在的毛里求斯）和波旁島（現(xiàn)在的留尼汪）。1812年，一位名叫哈馬利·本·薩利赫的阿拉伯人將丁香從留尼汪島移植到桑給巴爾，并建立了種植園，這里最終占據(jù)了世界丁香產(chǎn)量的大部份額。直到1964年，桑給巴爾一直主導(dǎo)著世界丁香市場。

During the Napoleonic Wars, the English temporarily seized the Banda Islands. Before the Dutch could regain control, the English uprooted hundreds of nutmeg seedlings and moved them to their own colonies in Ceylon, Singapore, and India, breaking the Dutch monopoly on nutmeg and mace. This ended a Dutch stranglehold on the Indonesian spice industry that had held up for well over 100 years.

? ? ? ? ? ?在拿破侖戰(zhàn)爭期間，英國人暫時占領(lǐng)了班達群島。在荷蘭人重新獲得控制權(quán)之前，英國人將數(shù)百株肉豆蔻樹苗連根拔起，轉(zhuǎn)移到他們自己在錫蘭、新加坡和印度的殖民地，打破了荷蘭對肉豆蔻和麥芽的壟斷。這就結(jié)束了荷蘭對印度尼西亞香料業(yè)的壟斷，而這種壟斷已經(jīng)維持了100多年。

參考書目：

Bergreen, Laurence. Over the Edge of the World Updated Edition. William Morrow Paperbacks, 2019.

Boxer, C.R. Portuguese Seaborne Empire. Carcanet Press Ltd., 1991.

Crowley, Roger. Conquerors. Random House, 2015.

Kelsey, H. . "Finding the way home: Spanish exploration of the round-trip route across the Pacific Ocean." Western Historical Quarterly , 17/1986, pp. 145-162.

Koehler, J. "Spice migrations: Cloves." AramacoWorld , 72/2021, pp. 34-37.

Masselman, George. George Masselman / The Cradle of Colonialism 1963. Yale University Press, New Haven, 1963.

Milton, Giles. Nathaniel's Nutmeg. Picador, 2015.

Nijman, J. "The VOC and the expansion of the world system 1602–1799 ." Political Geography , 13/1994, pp. 211–227.

Nowell, C.E. . "The Loaisa expedition and the ownership of the Moluccas." Pacific Historical Review , 5/1936, pp. 325–336.

Rijksstudio Accessed 4 Nov 2021.

原文作者：James Hancock

? ? ? ? ? James F. Hancock是一名自由撰稿人，密歇根州立大學(xué)的名譽教授。他的研究領(lǐng)域是作物進化和貿(mào)易史。他的書包括《香料、香味和絲綢》（CABI），以及《種植園作物》（Routledge）

原文網(wǎng)址：https://www.worldhistory.org/article/1872/european-discovery--conquest-of-the-spice-islands/