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【簡譯】平安時代（Heian Period）

2022-12-24 14:01 作者:神尾智代 0人讀過 | 我要投稿

上一時代：

The Heian Period of Japanese history covers 794 to 1185 CE and saw a great flourishing in Japanese culture from literature to paintings. Government and its administration came to be dominated by the Fujiwara clan who eventually were challenged by the Minamoto and Taira clans. The period, named after the capital Heiankyo, closes with the Genpei War in which the Minamoto were victorious and their leader Yoritomo established the Kamakura Shogunate.

? ? ? ? ? 歷史上的平安時代涵蓋公元794年至1185年，見證了日本文化從文學(xué)到繪畫的繁榮。政府和行政管理逐漸由藤原氏掌控，后來受到了源氏和平氏家族的挑戰(zhàn)。這一時期以首都平安京命名，以源平合戰(zhàn)的結(jié)束而告終，源氏取得了勝利，其領(lǐng)導(dǎo)人源賴朝建立了鐮倉幕府。

從奈良到平安京

During the Nara Period (710-794 CE) the Japanese imperial court was beset by internal conflicts motivated by the aristocracy battling each other for favours and positions and an excessive influence on policy from Buddhist sects whose temples were dotted around the capital. Eventually, the situation resulted in Emperor Kammu (r. 781-806 CE) moving the capital from Nara to (briefly) Nagaokakyo and then to Heiankyo in 794 CE to start afresh and release the government from corruption and Buddhist influence. This marked the beginning of the Heian Period which would last into the 12th century CE.

? ? ? ? ? 在奈良時代（公元710-794年），日本朝廷飽受內(nèi)部沖突的困擾，貴族們?yōu)闋帄Z利益和地位而相互爭斗，佛教教派對政府政策過度影響，這些教派的寺廟遍布首都周圍。最終，這種情況導(dǎo)致桓武天皇（公元781-806年）將首都從奈良遷至（短暫的）長岡京，然后在公元794年遷至平安京，以重新開始并使政府?dāng)[脫腐敗和佛教的影響。這標(biāo)志著平安時代的開始，它將持續(xù)到公元12世紀(jì)。

The new capital, Heiankyo, meaning 'the capital of peace and tranquillity,' was laid out on a regular grid plan. The city had a wide central avenue which dissected the eastern and western quarters. Architecture followed Chinese models with most buildings for public administration having crimson columns supporting green tiled roofs. Private homes were much more modest and had thatch or bark roofs. The aristocracy had palaces with their own carefully landscaped gardens and a large pleasure park was built south of the royal palace (Daidairi). No Buddhist temples were permitted in the central part of the city and artisan quarters developed with workshops for artists, metal workers and potters.

? ? ? ? ? 新的首都平安京，寓意著“和平與安寧的首都”，按照規(guī)則的網(wǎng)格計劃進行布局。這座城市有一條寬闊的中央大道，將東部和西部地區(qū)分割開來。建筑遵循中國模式，大多數(shù)公共行政建筑都有深紅色的柱子，支撐著綠色的瓦片屋頂。私人住宅則更為簡樸，采用茅草或樹皮屋頂。貴族們的宮殿都有自己精心設(shè)計的花園，在王宮（Daidairi）的南部建有一個大型的娛樂公園。城市的中心部分不允許建造佛教寺廟，工匠區(qū)發(fā)展起來，有藝術(shù)家、金屬工匠和陶工的工作室。

No Heian Period buildings survive today from the capital except the Shishin-den (Audience Hall) which was burnt down but faithfully reconstructed and the Daigoku-den (Hall of State) which suffered a similar fate and was rebuilt on a smaller scale at the Heian Shrine. From the 11th century CE the city's longtime informal name meaning simply 'the capital city' was officially adopted: Kyoto. It would remain the capital of Japan for a thousand years.

? ? ? ? ? 除了被燒毀但被重建的“紫宸殿”和遭遇同樣命運并在平安神宮以較小規(guī)模重建的 “大極殿”之外，沒有其他平安時期的建筑存留至今。從公元 11 世紀(jì)起，這座城市長期以來的非正式名稱（意為“首都”）正式被采用：京都。它在一千年內(nèi)一直是日本的首都。

平安時期的政府

Kyoto was the centre of a government which consisted of the emperor, his high ministers, a council of state and eight ministries which, with the help of an extensive bureaucracy, ruled over some 7,000,000 people spread over 68 provinces, each ruled by a regional governor and further divided into eight or nine districts. In wider Japan, the lot of the peasantry was not quite so rosy as the aesthetics-preoccupied nobility at court. The vast majority of Japan's population worked the land, either for themselves or the estates of others, and they were burdened by banditry and excessive taxation. Rebellions such as occurred in Kanto under the leadership of Taira no Masakado between 935 and 940 CE were not uncommon.

? ? ? ? ? 京都是政府中心，它由天皇、高級大臣、內(nèi)朝（存疑待更正？）和八個部委組成，在官僚機構(gòu)的幫助下，統(tǒng)治著分布在68個省的大約7,000,000人，每個省由一名地區(qū)長官統(tǒng)治，并進一步劃分為8或9個區(qū)。農(nóng)民的命運并不像宮廷里專注于美學(xué)的貴族那么美好。日本的絕大多數(shù)人口都在耕種土地，要么是為自己的生計，要么是為他人的產(chǎn)業(yè)，他們被盜賊和過度的稅收所困擾。像公元935年至940年期間在平將門領(lǐng)導(dǎo)下發(fā)生在關(guān)東的叛亂并不少見。

The policy of distributing public lands which had been instigated in previous centuries came to an end by the 10th century CE, and the result was that the proportion of land held in private hands gradually increased. By the 12th century CE 50% of land was held in private estates (shoen) and many of these, given special dispensation through favours or due to religious reasons, were exempt from paying tax. This situation would cause a serious dent in the state's finances. Wealthy landowners were able to reclaim new land and develop it, thus increasing their wealth and opening an ever-wider gap between the haves and have-nots. There were also practical political repercussions as the large estate owners became more remote from the land they owned, many of them actually residing at court in Heiankyo. This meant that estates were managed by subordinates who sought to increase their own power, and conversely, the nobility and the emperor became more separated from everyday life. Most commoners' contact with the central authority was limited to paying the local tax collector and brushes with the metropolitan police force which not only maintained public order but also tried and sentenced criminals.

? ? ? ? ? 公元10世紀(jì)時，前幾個世紀(jì)推行的公共土地分配政策已經(jīng)結(jié)束，結(jié)果是私人手中的土地比例逐漸增加。到了公元12世紀(jì)，50%的土地由私人莊園（shoen）持有，其中許多人由于受到恩惠或宗教原因而獲得特別豁免，可以免于納稅。這種情況會對國家財政造成嚴(yán)重影響。富裕的地主能夠開墾新的土地并加以開發(fā)，從而增加他們的財富，貧富差距逐漸擴大。隨著大莊園主越來越遠(yuǎn)離他們擁有的土地，也產(chǎn)生了實際的政治影響，他們中的許多人實際上住在平安京的宮廷里。這意味著莊園由尋求增加自己權(quán)力的下屬管理，相反，貴族和皇帝與日常生活更加分離。大多數(shù)平民與中央當(dāng)局的接觸僅限于向當(dāng)?shù)氐氖斩悊T納稅，以及與首都警察部隊打交道，后者不僅維持公共秩序，而且還負(fù)責(zé)審問和判決罪犯。

Even at court the emperor, although still important and still considered divine, became sidelined by powerful bureaucrats who all came from one family: the Fujiwara clan. Figures such as Michinaga (966-1028 CE) not only dominated policy and government bodies such as the household treasury office (kurando-dokoro) but also managed to marry off their daughters to emperors. Further weakening the royal position was the fact that many emperors took the throne as children and so were governed by a regent (Sessho), usually a representative of the Fujiwara family. When the emperor reached adulthood, he was still advised by a new position, the Kampaku, which ensured the Fujiwara still pulled the political strings of court. To guarantee this situation was perpetuated, new emperors were nominated not by birth but by their sponsors and encouraged or forced to abdicate when in their thirties in favour of a younger successor. For example, Fujiwara Yoshifusa put his seven-year-old grandson on the throne in 858 CE and then became his regent. Many Fujiwara statesmen would act as regent for three or four emperors during their career.

? ? ? ? ? 即使在宮廷里，天皇雖然仍然重要且仍被認(rèn)為是神圣的，但卻被強大的官僚們排擠在外，這些官僚都來自一個家族：藤原氏。像藤原道長（公元966-1028年）這樣的人物不僅主導(dǎo)政策和政府機構(gòu)，如大臣辦公室（kurando-dokoro），而且還設(shè)法將女兒嫁給了皇帝。進一步削弱皇室地位的事實是，許多天皇在孩提時代即位，因此由攝政王（Sessho）輔助管理，通常是藤原家族的代表。當(dāng)天皇成年后，他仍然被一個新的角色，即關(guān)白(kampaku)輔佐，這確保了藤原家族仍然在宮廷中操縱政權(quán)。為了保證這種情況得以延續(xù)，新的天皇不是由出生而被提名，而是由他們的贊助人提名，并鼓勵或強迫他們在30多歲時退位，以讓位給更年輕的繼承人。例如，藤原良房在公元858年將他7歲的孫子推上了皇位，然后成為他的攝政王。許多藤原政治家在他們的職業(yè)生涯中會為三或四個皇帝擔(dān)任攝政。

The dominance of the Fujiwara was not total and did not go unchallenged. Emperor Shirakawa (r. 1073-1087 CE) attempted to assert his independence from the Fujiwara by abdicating in 1087 CE and allowing his son Horikawa to reign under his supervision. This strategy of 'retired' emperors, still in effect governing, became known as 'cloistered government' (insei) as the emperor usually remained behind closed doors in a monastery. It added another wheel to the already complex machine of government.

? ? ? ? ? 藤原家族的統(tǒng)治地位并非完全沒有受到挑戰(zhàn)。白河天皇（公元1073-1087年）試圖通過在公元1087年退位，讓他的兒子堀川在他的監(jiān)督下執(zhí)政，讓他不受藤原家族的控制。這種“退休”天皇的策略，實際上仍然有效，被稱為 “隱居政府”（insei），因為天皇通常在寺院中閉門不出。這給已經(jīng)很復(fù)雜的政府機器又增加了一道難題。

Back in the provinces, new power-brokers were emerging. Left to their own devices and fuelled by blood from the minor nobility produced by the process of dynastic shedding (when an emperor or aristocrat had too many children they were removed from the line of inheritance), two important groups evolved, the Minamoto (aka Genji) and Taira (aka Heike) clans. With their own private armies of samurai, they became important instruments in the hands of rival members of the Fujiwara clan's internal power struggle which broke out in the 1156 CE Hogen Disturbance and the 1160 CE Heiji Disturbance.

? ? ? ? ? 在外省，新的權(quán)力掮客正在出現(xiàn)。由他們自己決定，并由王朝割據(jù)過程中產(chǎn)生的小貴族的血液（當(dāng)一個皇帝或貴族有太多的孩子時，他們就會被從繼承線中刪除）所推動，兩個重要的團體逐漸形成，即源氏（又稱源氏）和平氏（又稱平氏）。他們擁有自己的私人武士軍隊，成為藤原氏內(nèi)部權(quán)力斗爭中的重要工具，這些斗爭在公元1156年的保元之亂和公元1160年的平治之亂中爆發(fā)了。

The Taira, led by Taira no Kiyomori, eventually swept away all rivals and dominated government for two decades. However, in the Genpei War (1180-1185), the Minamoto returned victorious, and at the war's finale, the Battle of Dannoura, the Taira leader, Tomamori, and the young emperor Antoku committed suicide. The Minamoto clan leader Yoritomo was shortly after given the title of shogun by the emperor and his rule would usher in the Kamakura Period (1185-1333 CE), also known as the Kamakura Shogunate, when Japanese government became dominated by the military.

? ? ? ? ? 平氏家族在平清盛的領(lǐng)導(dǎo)下，最終橫掃了所有對手，并統(tǒng)治政府長達二十年。然而，在源平合戰(zhàn)（1180-1185年）中，源氏取得了勝利，在戰(zhàn)爭的最后一戰(zhàn)——壇之浦之戰(zhàn)中，平氏領(lǐng)袖平知盛和年輕的安德天皇自殺身亡。不久之后，源氏族長源賴朝被天皇授予將軍頭銜，他的統(tǒng)治將迎來鐮倉時代（公元1185-1333年），也被稱為鐮倉幕府，此時日本政府開始由軍隊主導(dǎo)。

平安時期的宗教

In terms of religion, Buddhism continued its dominance, helped by such noted scholar monks as Kukai (774-835 CE) and Saicho (767-822 CE), who founded the Shingon and Tendai Buddhist sects respectively. They brought from their visits to China new ideas, practices, and texts, notably the Lotus Sutra (Hokke-kyo) which contained the new message that there were many different but equally valid ways to enlightenment. There was also Amida (Amitabha), the Buddha of Pure Land Buddhism, who could help his followers on this difficult path.

? ? ? ? ? 在宗教方面，佛教繼續(xù)保持其主導(dǎo)地位，在空海（公元774-835年）和最澄（公元767-822年）等著名僧侶的幫助下，分別創(chuàng)立了真言宗和天臺宗。他們在訪問中國時帶來了新的思想、實踐和文本，特別是《法華經(jīng)》（Hoke-kyo），其中包含了許多新的宗教思想，即有許多不同但同樣有效的方法來實現(xiàn)開悟。還有阿彌陀佛（Amitabha），凈土宗的佛陀，能夠在這條艱難的道路上幫助他的弟子。

Buddhism's spread was assisted by government patronage, although, the emperor was wary of undue power amongst the Buddhist clergy and so took to appointing abbots and confining monks to their monasteries. Buddhist sects had become powerful political entities and although monks were forbidden from carrying weapons and killing, they could pay novice monks and mercenaries to do their fighting for them to win power and influence in the mishmash of nobles, landed-estate managers, private and imperial armies, emperor and ex-emperors, pirates, and warring clans that plagued the Heian political landscape.

? ? ? ? ? 佛教的傳播得到了政府的支持，盡管皇帝對佛教神職人員中的不正當(dāng)權(quán)力有所警惕，因此采取了任命住持和將僧侶限制在寺院里的做法。佛教教派已成為強大的政治實體，盡管僧侶被禁止攜帶武器和殺人，但他們可以付錢給沙彌或雇傭兵，讓他們?yōu)樽约捍蛘蹋员阍谫F族、地主、私人和帝國軍隊、皇帝和前皇帝、海盜以及困擾平安政治格局的交戰(zhàn)部族中贏得權(quán)力和影響力。

Confucian and Taoist principles also continued to be influential in the centralised administration, and the old Shinto and animist beliefs continued, as before, to hold sway over the general populace while Shinto temples such as the Ise Grande Shrine remained important places of pilgrimage. All of these faiths were practised side by side, very often by the same individuals, from the emperor to the humblest farmer.

? ? ? ? ? 儒家和道家的原則在中央集權(quán)的行政管理中也繼續(xù)發(fā)揮著影響，而古老的神道和萬物有靈論的信仰和以前一樣，繼續(xù)對普通民眾產(chǎn)生影響，而伊勢神宮等神道廟宇仍然是重要的朝圣地。這些信仰都是并存的，而且往往是由同一批人，從皇帝到最卑微的農(nóng)民都在信奉。

與中國的關(guān)系

Following a final embassy to the Tang court in 838 CE, there were no longer formal diplomatic relations with China as Japan became somewhat isolationist without any necessity to defend its borders or embark on territorial conquest. However, sporadic trade and cultural exchanges continued with China, as before. Goods imported from China included medicines, worked silk fabrics, ceramics, weapons, armour, and musical instruments, while Japan sent in return pearls, gold dust, amber, raw silk, and gilt lacquerware.

? ? ? ? ? 在公元838年最后一次出使唐朝后，日本與中國便不再有正式的外交關(guān)系，因為日本變得有些孤立，沒有必要保衛(wèi)其邊界或開始征服領(lǐng)土。然而，與中國的零星貿(mào)易和文化交流仍在繼續(xù)。從中國進口的商品包括藥品、加工過的絲織品、陶瓷、武器、盔甲和樂器，而日本則送來珍珠、金粉、琥珀、生絲和鎏金漆器作為回報。

Monks, scholars, musicians, and artists were sent to see what they could learn from the more advanced culture of China and bring back new ideas on anything from painting to medicine. Students also went, many spending several years studying Chinese administrative practices and bringing back their knowledge to the court. Books came too, a catalogue dating to 891 CE lists more than 1,700 Chinese titles made available in Japan which cover history, poetry, court protocols, medicine, laws, and Confucian classics. Still, despite these exchanges, the lack of regular missions between the two states from the 10th century CE meant that the Heian Period overall saw a diminishing in the influence of Chinese culture, which meant that Japanese culture began to find its own unique path of development.

? ? ? ? ? 僧侶、學(xué)者、音樂家和藝術(shù)家被派往中國，看看他們能從中國更先進的文化中學(xué)到什么，并帶回從繪畫到醫(yī)學(xué)等各領(lǐng)域的新思想。學(xué)生們也去了，許多人花了幾年時間學(xué)習(xí)中國的行政管理方法，并將他們的知識帶回宮廷。他們也帶回大量的書籍，一份可追溯到公元891年的目錄列出了1700多種中國書籍，這些書籍涵蓋了歷史、詩歌、宮廷禮儀、醫(yī)學(xué)、法律和儒家經(jīng)典。盡管有這些交流，但從公元10世紀(jì)開始，兩國之間缺乏定期的訪問，這意味著平安時代總體上看到中國文化的影響在減少，這意味著日本文化正逐漸尋找自己獨特的發(fā)展道路。

平等院鳳凰堂，該院興建于公元1053年，由平安時代權(quán)傾一時的藤原賴通改建其父別院

平安時期的文化

The Heian period is noted for its cultural achievements, at least at the imperial court. These include the creation of a Japanese writing (kana) using Chinese characters, mostly phonetically, which permitted the production of the world's first novel, the Tale of Genji by Murasaki Shikibu (c. 1020 CE), and several noted diaries (nikki) written by court ladies, including The Pillow Book by Sei Shonagon which she completed c. 1002 CE. Other famous works of the period are the Izumi Shikibu Diary, Fujiwara no Michitsuna's Kagero nikki, and a Tale of Flowering Fortunes by Akazome Emon.

? ? ? ? ? 平安時期以其文化成就而聞名，至少在朝廷是這樣的。這些成就包括使用漢字創(chuàng)造的日本文字（假名），這使得世界上第一部長篇小說——紫式部的《源氏物語》（約公元1020年）得以問世，還有幾本由宮廷女官撰寫的著名的日記（nikki），包括清少納言的《枕草子》，她大約在公元1002年完成這本書。這一時期的其他著名作品有《和泉式部日記》、藤原道綱的《蜻蛉日記》，以及赤染衛(wèi)門的《榮花物語》。

This flourishing of women's writing was largely due to the Fujiwara ensuring that their sponsored women at court were surrounded by an interesting and educated entourage in order to attract the affections of the emperor and safeguard their monopoly on state affairs. It also seems that men were not interested in frivolous diaries and commentaries on court life, leaving the field open to women writers who collectively created a new genre of literature which examined the transitory nature of life, encapsulated in the phrase mono no aware (the sadness or pathos of things). Those men who did write history did so anonymously or even pretended to be women such as Ki no Tsurayuki in his travel memoir Tosa nikki.

? ? ? ? ? 女性寫作的繁榮很大程度上歸功于藤原家族確保他們在宮廷中贊助的女性周圍都是有趣且受過教育的隨從，以吸引天皇的喜愛并維護她們對國家事務(wù)的壟斷。此外，男性似乎對輕浮的日記和宮廷生活的評論不感興趣，這給女性作家留下了廣闊的空間，她們共同創(chuàng)造了一種新的文學(xué)體裁，審視生活的短暫性，用mono no aware（事物的悲傷或悲哀）這一短語來概括。那些真正寫下歷史的男人都是匿名的，甚至假裝成女人，如紀(jì)貫之在他的旅行回憶錄《土佐日記》借用女性口吻來完成敘述。

Men did write poetry, though, and the first anthology of royally commissioned Japanese poems, the Kokinshu ('Collection of the Past and Present') appeared in 905 CE. It was a collection of poems by men and women and was compiled by Ki no Tsurayuki, who famously stated, "The seeds of Japanese poetry lie in the human heart grow into leaves of ten thousand words. " (Ebrey, 199).

? ? ? ? ? 不過，男人也寫詩，第一部由皇室委托的日本詩歌選集《古今和歌集》（'過去和現(xiàn)在的集合'）出現(xiàn)在公元905年。這是一本男女詩集，由紀(jì)貫之編纂，他有句名言：“日本詩歌的種子在人心中，長成萬字之葉”。（Ebrey, 199）

Besides literature, the period also saw the production of especially fine clothing at the royal court, using silk and Chinese brocades. Visual arts were represented by screen paintings, intricate hand scrolls of pictures and text (e-maki), and fine calligraphy. An aristocrat's reputation was built not only on his position at court or in the administration but also his appreciation of these things and his ability to compose his own poetry, play music, dance, master board games like go, and perform feats of archery.

? ? ? ? ? 除了文學(xué)，這一時期，王室還使用絲綢和中國織錦制作了特別精美的服裝。視覺藝術(shù)的代表是屏風(fēng)畫、復(fù)雜的圖畫和文字手卷（e-maki），以及精美的書法。一個貴族的聲譽不僅建立在他在宮廷或行政部門的地位上，而且還建立在他對這些東西的欣賞以及他自己作詩、演奏音樂、跳舞、掌握圍棋等棋盤游戲和表演射箭的能力上。

Painters and sculptors continued to use Buddhism as their inspiration to produce wooden sculptures (painted or left natural), paintings of scholars, gilded bronze bells, rock-cut sculptures of Buddha, ornate bronze mirrors, and lacquered cases for sutras which all helped spread the new sects' imagery around Japan. Such was the demand for art that for the first time a class of professional artists arose, the work previously having been created by scholar monks. Painting also became a fashionable pastime for the aristocracy.

? ? ? ? ? 畫家和雕塑家繼續(xù)以佛教為靈感，制作木雕（涂色或自然）、文人畫、鍍金銅鐘、石刻佛像、華麗的銅鏡和漆制的藏經(jīng)盒，這些都有助于在日本各地傳播新教派形象。對藝術(shù)的需求如此之大，以至于第一次出現(xiàn)了一個專業(yè)的藝術(shù)家階層，以前的作品都是由學(xué)者和尚創(chuàng)作的。繪畫也成為貴族們的一種時尚消遣方式。

Gradually, a more wholly-Japanese approach expanded the range of subject matter in art. A Japanese style, Yamato-e, developed in painting particularly, which distinguished it from Chinese works. It is characterised by more angular lines, the use of brighter colours, and greater decorative details. Lifelike portraits of court personalities such as those by Fujiwara Takanobu, illustrations inspired by Japanese literature, and landscapes became popular, paving the way for the great works to come in the medieval period.

? ? ? ? ? 漸漸地，一種更完全日本化的方法擴大了藝術(shù)題材的范圍。即大和繪，特別是在繪畫方面的發(fā)展，使其區(qū)別于中國風(fēng)格。它的特點是線條更有棱角，使用更明亮的顏色，以及更多的裝飾細(xì)節(jié)。栩栩如生的宮廷人物肖像，如藤原隆信的肖像畫、受日本文學(xué)啟發(fā)的插圖以及風(fēng)景畫開始流行，為中世紀(jì)時期藝術(shù)品的發(fā)展鋪平了道路。