https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/1616525.Teaching_Word_Meanings_Literacy_Teaching_

11 教授單詞學習策略。單詞部分 157

guptopia n. 水族館中的虛假裝飾，旨在愚弄魚兒，讓它們以為是在水下天堂。

(Hall, 1989, When Sniglets Ruled the Earth, p. 44)

作為一個有策略的讀者，一部分是知道如何處理閱讀時遇到的不熟悉的詞匯。有策略的讀者知道如何適當和靈活地利用他們所掌握的資源?？梢越虒W生戰(zhàn)略性地處理上下文、詞組和定義（Buikema & Graves, 1993；Nagy, Winsor, Osborn, & O'Flahavan, 1993；White等人, 1989）。

我們不應(yīng)該期望學生的獨立單詞學習會使他們對單詞有完整的認識，但是，在他們自己的情況下，學生通?？梢詫σ粋€單詞有足夠的了解，從而掌握文章的要點，并使遇到不熟悉的單詞時不會對他們的閱讀造成干擾。因此，我們可以把獨立的單詞策略看作是詞匯金字塔的第二層--一種對相當多的單詞多學一點的方法。

教師可以做幾件事來幫助學生成為更好的單詞學習者，包括。

- 示范當你遇到一個陌生的單詞時，你會怎么做

- 教導學生使用單詞的組成部分、上下文線索和定義

- 在你的理解策略教學中包括處理不熟悉的單詞的策略。

好的策略教學還包括明確的解釋（如何、何時、為何應(yīng)用策略）、示范、用真實的材料進行指導性練習，以及逐步將責任轉(zhuǎn)移給學生（Duke & Pearson, 2002）。

學生在獨立學習單詞時有三個主要的信息來源：單詞部分、上下文和定義。正如我們希望在本章和后面的兩章中明確指出的那樣，每一種都是有價值的信息來源，但每一種也都很難使用，并有可能產(chǎn)生誤導。因此，單詞學習策略教學應(yīng)包括有關(guān)上下文、單詞部分和定義的局限性的信息，并應(yīng)教會學生整合來自多個來源的信息（例如，單詞部分的含義在這個上下文中是否有意義？）

好的策略教學可以幫助學生學習為什么、何時以及如何使用個別策略。因此，旨在使學生成為更好的獨立單詞學習者的教學也將包括更高層次的策略，指導學生使用單詞部分、上下文和字典，使學習者評估。我是否需要知道這個詞來理解文本？這個詞值得在字典中查找嗎？我對這個詞的了解是否足以繼續(xù)下去？

在這一章中，我們談到了使用單詞部分作為學習單詞的策略。我們將在第12章和第13章分別討論上下文和定義。然而，在這三章中，我們希望你記住，使用這三個有關(guān)單詞的信息來源是一項困難的、往往是智力上的挑戰(zhàn)，有時需要仔細的、反思的思考，以及對自己語言的豐富知識基礎(chǔ)。因此，教授單詞學習策略，就像教授其他理解策略一樣，是一個長期（事實上是多年）的命題。

詞匯部分的用處

如果你擁有一臺電腦，并在任何與語言有關(guān)的領(lǐng)域工作，最終會有人給你轉(zhuǎn)發(fā)一封關(guān)于英語語言荒謬的電子郵件，這可以追溯到Richard Lederer（1989）的《瘋狂英語》一書（盡管在互聯(lián)網(wǎng)上流傳的版本中，很少有人承認來源）。在形態(tài)學的瘋狂之旅中，Lederer發(fā)現(xiàn)了一個又一個的案例，在這些案例中，一個詞的各個部分并不能引出它的意思--雜貨商不是groce，錘子不是ham，手指不是fing；你在公園路上開車，而停在車道上，等等。(一個合法的互聯(lián)網(wǎng)版本可以在http://pwl.netcom.com/~rlederer/arc_ceng.htm上找到。) 這樣的例子太多了，以至于有些人得出結(jié)論，單詞部分根本不值得人們關(guān)注。

情況真的如此糟糕，以至于使詞的部分毫無用處嗎？Nagy和Anderson(1984)分析了學校印刷材料的語言，發(fā)現(xiàn)75%以上的前綴、后綴和復(fù)合詞的含義可以很容易地從其部分的含義中猜出來。因此，在大多數(shù)情況下，詞的組成部分是有用的。

然而，這一發(fā)現(xiàn)并不是對使用詞組的無條件樂觀的理由。在四分之一的情況下被詞組誤導仍然是一個問題。此外，不規(guī)則的意思更有可能出現(xiàn)在更頻繁的單詞中，而許多漂亮的可預(yù)測的單詞在文本中非常罕見。因此，學生在看到復(fù)合詞、前綴詞或后綴詞時，更肯定會有25%以上的時間遇到誤導性的詞部。

對詞組的現(xiàn)實考察再次告訴我們，正如在語言和閱讀方面經(jīng)常發(fā)生的那樣，簡單的非此即彼的方法是行不通的。詞組是一種很有價值的資源，不能忽視，但它們又太不穩(wěn)定，不能盲目地使用。學生需要學會戰(zhàn)略性地、謹慎地、深思熟慮地使用詞組。

Nation（1990）對使用詞組提出了一個非常具體的建議。如果你遇到一個可以分成幾個部分的新詞，首先要利用上下文來大致了解其含義，然后再看詞的部分，看看它們是否能給你帶來進一步的幫助。Nation的建議是基于很多經(jīng)驗的，所以應(yīng)該認真考慮，盡管我們不知道有什么研究可以證明這種具體的方法對單詞部分的優(yōu)越性。然而，很明顯的是，至少需要參考一下上下文，看看根據(jù)一個詞的組成部分所構(gòu)建的意義對該文本是否有任何意義。

12 教詞學習策略。語境 173

所以，當我一次又一次地聽到同樣的詞被恰當?shù)赜糜诓煌亩陶Z時，我逐漸掌握了它們所象征的東西。

(Augustine, 386/1943, 1.8.13, p. 11)2?

學生的詞匯知識大部分（如果不是大部分）是通過在語境中遇到的單詞獲得的。孩子們在反復(fù)聽到這些詞或在印刷品中看到這些詞時，就會獲得關(guān)于這些詞的含義和使用方法的信息。即使是那些被明確教授的單詞，學生對它們的大部分知識最終也來自于在文本中對這些單詞的進一步接觸。我們認為可以假設(shè)，大多數(shù)擁有大量閱讀詞匯的成年人主要是通過閱讀--即通過從語境中推斷出單詞的含義--而不是通過廣泛使用字典或廣泛的詞匯教學來獲得這些詞匯。

然而，從語境中學習單詞是獲取詞匯的一種 "自然 "手段，這一事實并不一定意味著它非常有效。顯然，我們認為語境很重要，足以用一章的篇幅來論述它，并認為幫助學生成為語境信息的更有效使用者是很重要的。然而，首先，我們需要明確的是，作為詞義的信息來源，上下文肯定是有問題的。

13 教詞學習策略。定義 182

作為純粹的休閑讀物，我仍然認為英語詞典是我們語言中最有趣的書。

(阿爾伯特-杰-諾克，1943年，《一個多余人的回憶》，第15頁)

這是關(guān)于單詞學習策略的三章中的第三章--如何幫助學生更有效地利用單詞部分、上下文和定義。從某種意義上說，定義無疑是這三者中最可靠的。我們已經(jīng)花了一些時間來解釋詞的部分和上下文是如何提供關(guān)于詞義的部分信息，有時甚至是誤導性的信息。另一方面，定義的明確設(shè)計是為了盡可能提供關(guān)于一個詞的含義的最準確和完整的信息。在學校內(nèi)外，字典通常被認為是關(guān)于詞義的權(quán)威信息來源。

然而，正如我們在前兩章所做的那樣，我們首先要盡可能清楚地說明定義作為詞義信息來源的局限性。詞典定義作為學生的工具，至少有三個主要問題。

- 一個詞的意思總是在某種程度上取決于它出現(xiàn)的背景。

- 定義并不傳達關(guān)于一個詞如何被使用的信息。

- 兒童很難理解定義中的（通常是錯綜復(fù)雜的）語言。

就像單詞部分和上下文的情況一樣，我們不認為這些限制是放棄使用字典的理由。然而，對學生來說，使用字典遠比人們所認識的要困難得多。詞典的使用必須被看作是一種復(fù)雜的認知策略，需要多年的發(fā)展。在討論了定義的局限性之后，我們接著給出了一些教學活動的建議，這些活動應(yīng)有助于學生學會更有效地使用定義。

?使用www.DeepL.com/Translator翻譯（免費版）

11 Teaching Word Learning Strategies: Word Parts 157

guptopia n. the phony decor in an aquarium designed to fool fish into thinking they're in an underwater paradise.

(Hall, 1989, When Sniglets Ruled the Earth, p. 44)

Part of being a strategic reader is knowing how to deal with the unfamiliar vocabulary one encounters while reading. Strategic readers know how to make appropriate and flexible use of the resources available to them. Students can be taught to deal strategically with context, word parts, and definitions (Buikema & Graves, 1993; Nagy, Winsor, Osborn, & O'Flahavan, 1993; White et al., 1989).

We should not expect that students' independent word learning will lead them to complete knowledge of words, but, on their own, students can usually learn enough about a word to get the gist of the text and to keep encounters with unfamiliar words from being a disruption to their reading. Hence, we can think of independent word strategies as being on Level II of the vocabulary pyramid—a way to learn a little more about a fairly large number of words.

There are several things that teachers can do to help students become better word learners, including:

? Modeling what you do when you encounter an unfamiliar word

? Teaching about use of word parts, context clues, and definitions

? Including strategies for dealing with unfamiliar words in your comprehension strategy instruction.

Good strategy instruction also includes explicit explanations (how, when, and why to apply strategies), modeling, guided practice with authentic materials, and gradual transfer of responsibility to students (Duke & Pearson, 2002).

There are three main sources of information available for students in independent word learning: word parts, context, and definitions. As we hope to make clear in this chapter and the two that follow, each of these is a valuable source of information, but each can also be difficult to use and potentially misleading. Word learning strategy instruction should therefore include information about the limitations of context, word parts, and definitions, and should teach students to integrate information from multiple sources (e.g., does the meaning of the word parts make sense in this context?).

Good strategy instruction helps students learn why, when, and how to use individual strategies. Therefore, instruction that aims at making students better independent word learners will also include higher-level strategies that guide students' use of word parts, context, and dictionaries, causing learners to evaluate: Do I need to know this word to understand the text? Is this word worth looking up in a dictionary? Do I know enough about this word yet to go on?

In this chapter we talk about using word parts as a word-learning strategy. We go on to context and definitions in chapters 12 and 13, respectively. In all three chapters, however, we want you to keep in mind that using these three sources of information about words is a difficult and often intellectually challenging task that sometimes requires careful, reflective thinking, as well as a rich base of knowledge about one's language. Teaching word learning strategies, like the teaching of other comprehension strategies, is therefore a long-term (in fact, multiyear) proposition.

The Usefulness Of Word Parts

If you own a computer and work in any language-related field, eventually someone forwards you an e-mail about the absurdities of the English language that can be traced by to Richard Lederer's (1989) book Crazy English (although in the versions circulated through the Internet, the source is seldom acknowledged). In a tour de force of morphological madness, Lederer identified case after case in which the parts of a word don't lead to its meaning—grocers don't groce, hammers don't ham, fingers don't fing; you drive on a parkway, and park in the driveway, and so on. (A legitimate Internet version can be found at http://pwl.netcom.com/~rlederer/arc_ceng.htm.) There are so many such examples that some people have concluded that word parts are simply not worth one's attention.

Is the situation really so bad as to make word parts useless? Nagy and Anderson (1984) analyzed the language of printed school materials, and found that a little over 75% of prefixed, suffixed, and compound words had meanings that could be easily figured out from the meanings of their parts. In the majority of cases, then, word parts can be useful.

However, this finding is not grounds for unqualified optimism about the use of word parts. Being mislead byword parts one time out of four can still be a problem. Besides, irregular meanings are more likely to be found in more frequent words, whereas many of the nice predictable words are very rare in text. Thus, students are more certainly going to encounter misleading word parts more than 25% of the time they see a compound, prefixed, or suffixed word.

A realistic look at word parts tells us once more, as is so often the case with language and reading, that simplistic either-or approaches don't work. Word parts are too valuable a resource to ignore, but they are too inconsistent to use blindly. Students need to learn to use word parts strategically, cautiously, and thoughtfully.

Nation (1990) gave a very specific suggestion about using word parts: If you encounter a new word that can be broken into parts, first use the context to get a general idea of the meaning, and only then look to the word parts to see if they can give you further help. Nation's advice was based on much experience, so it should be given serious consideration, although we know of no research that would demonstrate the superiority of this specific approach to word parts. However, it's clear that, at very least, context needs to be consulted to see whether a meaning constructed on the basis of the parts of a word actually makes any sense for that text.

12 Teaching Word Learning Strategies: Context 173

So, as I heard the same words again and again properly used in different phrases, I came gradually to grasp what things they signified.

(Augustine, 386/1943, 1.8.13, p. 11)2?

Much, if not most, of students' vocabulary knowledge is gained through encountering words in context. Children pick up information about what words mean and how the words are used as they repeatedly hear the words or see them in print. Even for those words that are explicitly taught, much of students' knowledge of them ultimately comes from further encounters with those words in text. We think it is safe to assume that most adults with large reading vocabularies acquired them primarily through reading—that is, through inferring the meanings of words from context—rather than through extensive use of dictionaries or extensive vocabulary instruction.

The fact that learning words from context is a "natural" means of vocabulary acquisition, however, does not necessarily mean that it is very efficient. We obviously think that context is important enough to devote a chapter to it, and believe that it is important to help students become more effective users of contextual information. However, to start with, we need to make it?clear that as a source of information about word meanings, context is definitely problematic.

13 Teaching Word Learning Strategies: Definitions 182

As sheer casual reading matter, I still find the English dictionary the most interesting book in our language.

(Albert Jay Nock, 1943, Memoirs of a Superfluous Man, p. 15)

This is the third of three chapters about word learning strategies—how to help students make more effective use of word parts, context, and definitions. In one sense, definitions are certainly the most reliable of the three. We have gone to some length to explain how word parts and context supply only partial, and sometimes even misleading, information about the meanings of words. Definitions, on the other hand, are explicitly designed to give the most accurate and complete information possible about the meaning of a word. Both in and out of school, dictionaries are generally regarded as an authoritative source of information about word meanings.

As we have done in the preceding two chapters, however, we want to start by making as clear as possible the limitations of definitions as a source of information about word meanings. There are at least three main problems with dictionary definitions as a tool for students:

? The meaning of a word is always dependent to some extent on the context in which it occurs.

? Definitions do not convey information about how a word is used.

? Children have trouble understanding the (often convoluted) language of definitions.

Just as was the case with word parts and context, we don't see these limitations as reasons to give up the use of dictionaries. However, using dictionaries is far more difficult for students than is commonly recognized. Dictionary use must be seen as a complex cognitive strategy that takes years to develop. After we discuss the limitations of definitions, we go on to give some suggestions for instructional activities that should help students learn to use definitions more effectively.