The Spanish conquistadors might have gained a lasting reputation as the great gold-seekers of history, but they were actually far more successful in acquiring silver. Over 100 tons of gold were extracted from the Americas from 1492 to 1560, but the quantity of silver ultimately shipped in the treasure fleets back to Spain dwarfed that figure. By 1600, 25,000 tons of silver had been transported to Spain.

? ? ? ? ? 西班牙征服者可能是歷史上最臭名昭著的淘金者，但他們?cè)讷@取白銀方面要成功得多。從1492年到1560年，西班牙人從美洲開采的黃金超過100噸，但最終通過運(yùn)寶船隊(duì)運(yùn)回西班牙的白銀數(shù)量卻使這個(gè)數(shù)字相形見絀。到1600年，有25,000噸白銀被運(yùn)到西班牙。

The process of acquiring silver had two phases. First, the conquistadors stole whatever they came across of value, kidnapping and torturing anyone they thought had knowledge of the whereabouts of valuables. The second phase was to investigate the source of the metal, that is to find and expand through forced labour the silver mines American rulers had themselves been exploiting. Mines like Potosí in Bolivia proved to be so lucrative that silver soon far outstripped gold as the most valuable cargo of the Spanish treasure fleets that shipped the resources of the Americas to Europe.

? ? ? ? ? 獲取白銀的過程有兩個(gè)階段。首先，征服者們洗劫他們遇到的任何有價(jià)值的東西，綁架和折磨任何他們認(rèn)為知道貴重物品下落的人。第二階段是調(diào)查金屬的來源，也就是通過強(qiáng)迫勞動(dòng)力找到并擴(kuò)大開采銀礦規(guī)模。玻利維亞的波托西（Potosí）等礦場(chǎng)被證明是有利可圖，白銀的產(chǎn)量很快就遠(yuǎn)遠(yuǎn)超過了黃金，成為將美洲資源運(yùn)往歐洲的西班牙財(cái)寶船隊(duì)最寶貴的貨物。

財(cái)產(chǎn)與供應(yīng)

Silver was esteemed by many ancient cultures because of its relative softness, which made it easy to work by metalsmiths, and the fact that when polished it gains a lustrous shine. Silver was mined in ancient Mesoamerica and South America and was much valued by the Aztecs, Incas, Moche, Wari, Lambayeque, and Chimu cultures, amongst others.

? ? ? ? ? 銀被許多古代文化所推崇，因?yàn)樗鄬?duì)柔軟，便于加工，而且經(jīng)過拋光后會(huì)變得光澤。古代中美洲和南美洲很早就開采銀，阿茲特克人、印加人、莫切人、瓦里人、蘭巴耶克人和奇穆人等文化也很珍視它。

The Spanish conquistadors arrived in the Americas in the final decade of the 15th century, and they were most interested in finding gold since it was much more valuable than silver – 1 oz of gold bought 11 oz of silver in Amsterdam in the 16th century. Silver was a good second prize, though. The early conquistadors plundered whatever artefacts they could of silver and melted them down to create coinage and bullion bars for ease of transport and sharing out between them. Indigenous people were mercilessly robbed, captured, and tortured to find out where their silver and other valuables were hidden. Countless works of art, often of high religious significance to the indigenous peoples, were lost forever in this ruthless quest for cash. When the silver items ran out, the conquistadors turned their attention to the source: the mines. These they found and further exploited while new mines were also located. Eventually, thanks to the massive yields of the silver mines in Mexico and Bolivia, it was silver and not gold that dominated the meticulously kept pages of Spanish colonial accountants. By 1540, silver made up over 85% of annual precious metal shipments to Spain.

? ? ? ? ? 西班牙征服者在15世紀(jì)的最后十年到達(dá)美洲，他們最感興趣的是尋找黃金，因?yàn)辄S金比白銀更有價(jià)值——在16世紀(jì)的阿姆斯特丹，1盎司黃金可以買到11盎司白銀。不過，白銀是一個(gè)很好的第二選擇。早期征服者們掠奪了他們所能得到的任何銀器，并將其熔化以制造硬幣和金條，方便運(yùn)輸和交易。原住民被無情地?fù)尳佟⒉东@和折磨，說出他們的銀器和其他貴重物品的藏身之處。無數(shù)的藝術(shù)品，通常對(duì)原住民具有高度的宗教意義，在這種對(duì)現(xiàn)金的無情追求中永遠(yuǎn)消失了。銀制品被掠奪完后，征服者們將注意力轉(zhuǎn)向了源頭：礦場(chǎng)。他們接管并進(jìn)一步開發(fā)這些礦場(chǎng)，同時(shí)也找到了新的礦場(chǎng)。最終，由于墨西哥和玻利維亞的銀礦產(chǎn)量巨大，在西班牙殖民時(shí)期會(huì)計(jì)人員精心保存的賬簿中，占主導(dǎo)地位的是銀而不是金。到1540年，在每年運(yùn)往西班牙的貴金屬中，白銀占了85%以上。

墨西哥的銀礦

In Mesoamerica, silver was a valuable material, although not perhaps as much as gold, turquoise, and jade. The Maya, for example, had no source of the metal of their own in the lowlands. In 1547-8 the Zacatecas mines in Mexico began operation under Spanish control, the rich local vein of silver having already been mined on a smaller scale by the Zacatec people. The man who first supervised the mining was Juan de Tolosa, and he became the richest man in New Spain as a result. Guanajuato in central Mexico (opened in 1550) was another highly profitable mine. To better exploit silver-bearing ore, deep shafts were required along with extensive drainage channels, a labour-intensive process that required a serious investment. As the historians D. A. Brading and H. E. Cross note, "To construct a deep shaft cost as much as to build a factory or a church" (549).

? ? ? ? ? ?在中美洲，銀是一種有價(jià)值的材料，盡管可能沒有黃金、綠松石和玉石那么多。例如，瑪雅人在低地沒有自己的金屬來源。1547-1548年，墨西哥的薩卡特卡斯礦區(qū)在西班牙的控制下開始運(yùn)作，當(dāng)?shù)刎S富的銀礦脈已經(jīng)被薩卡特卡斯人小規(guī)模地開采出來。第一個(gè)監(jiān)督采礦的人是胡安·代·托洛薩，他因此成為新西班牙最富有的人。墨西哥中部的瓜納華托（1550年開礦）是另一個(gè)高利潤的礦山。為了更好地開采含銀的礦石，需要有深井和廣泛的排水渠道，這是一個(gè)勞動(dòng)密集型的過程，需要大量的投資。正如歷史學(xué)家D.A.Brading和H.E.Cross所指出的，"建造一個(gè)深井的費(fèi)用與建造一個(gè)工廠或教堂的費(fèi)用一樣多"（549）。

A second round of spending was required to refine the mined ore. A mine like Sombrerete had no fewer than 84 stamp mills (arrastres) to crush the ore and 14 furnaces to smelt out the silver. Fortunately for the Spaniards, there was, at least, a spread of knowledge on how to most efficiently mine silver from other European experts (especially German miners) and from such published works as G. Agricola's 1556 De re metallica. Methods using an amalgamation process involving mercury were employed, but still, the yield of silver from ore was relatively low compared to later periods, on average 1-2 oz per 112 lbs (28-56 g per 50 kg). It was not uncommon for up to 30% of the silver to remain unextracted from the ore.

? ? ? ? ? 需要第二輪開支來提煉開采的礦石。像松布雷雷特這樣的礦場(chǎng)有不少于84臺(tái)碾壓機(jī)（arrastres）來粉碎礦石，14個(gè)熔爐來熔煉銀子。對(duì)西班牙人來說，至少從其他歐洲專家（特別是德國礦工）和格奧爾格·阿格里科拉的1556年《坤輿格致》等出版作品中教授了關(guān)于如何最有效地開采銀礦的知識(shí)。使用汞齊化工藝的方法被西班牙人采用，但與后來相比，礦石的銀產(chǎn)量仍然相對(duì)較低，平均每112磅出產(chǎn)1-2盎司（每50公斤28-56克）。高達(dá)30%的銀未從礦石中提取出來的情況并不罕見。

When the mine owner had finally got his silver bullion bars neatly stacked and ready for transport, he next had to give the Spanish Crown one-fifth of them. Bars were taken to the local royal representative, who stamped them ready for shipping back to the king in Spain. The same 20% tax was applied on silver in South America.

? ? ? ? ? 礦主將他的銀條堆放整齊并準(zhǔn)備運(yùn)輸時(shí)，必須將其中的五分之一交給西班牙王室。銀條被送到當(dāng)?shù)氐幕始掖硖?，由他們蓋章，準(zhǔn)備運(yùn)回西班牙王室。南美洲的白銀也同樣被征收20%的稅。

南美洲的銀礦

For the Incas, silver was thought to derive from the tears of the moon goddess Mama Kilya. She had a magnificent temple dedicated to her at the Inca capital Cusco, which was covered with sheets of beaten silver. The thunder god Illapa brought rain and storms, and the lightning, it was thought, came from him flashing his silver robes. For this reason, mountains which were mined by the Incas for precious metals like silver often had shrines as they were considered sacred places or huacas.

? ? ? ? ? ?對(duì)印加人來說，銀是月亮女神Mama Kilya的眼淚。她在印加首都庫斯科有一座宏偉的神廟，上面鋪滿了加工過的銀片，供奉著她。雷神Illapa帶來了雨水和風(fēng)暴，人們認(rèn)為閃電來自于他閃爍的銀袍。因此，印加人開采銀等貴重金屬的山常常有神龕，因?yàn)樗麄冋J(rèn)為這是神圣的地方（huacas，在南美的克丘亞語中，huaca或wak'a是代表某種受人尊敬的物體，通常是某種紀(jì)念碑。）。

The Potosí mines in the Andes at Cerro Rico, Bolivia, were discovered in 1545 by Diego de Huallpa, and they proved to be the single most spectacular source of wealth for the Spanish in the whole of their empire. At their peak around 1600, the Potosí mines numbered over 600, and they collectively yielded some 9 million silver pesos each year, more than all the silver mines then operating in the world combined. The motto on the coat of arms of Potosí was boastful perhaps, but entirely accurate: "I am rich Potosí, treasure of the world, king of all mountains and envy of kings" (Sheppard, 89). The Potosí mines became such a synonym for wealth they lent their name to other mines in the Spanish Empire, notably the San Luis Potosí mines in Mexico (established in 1550). There is, too, the still-used expression in Spanish, vale un-Potosí, meaning "that's worth a fortune."

? ? ? ? ? 安第斯山脈中位于玻利維亞塞羅-里科的波托西礦區(qū)，是由迭戈-德-瓦爾帕于1545年發(fā)現(xiàn)的，該礦區(qū)是西班牙人在其整個(gè)帝國中最大的財(cái)富來源。在1600年左右的采礦高峰期，波托西礦區(qū)的數(shù)量超過600個(gè)，它們每年共生產(chǎn)約900萬銀比索，比當(dāng)時(shí)世界上所有銀礦的總和還要多。波托西國徽上的座右銘也許很夸張，但完全符合情況。"我是富有的波托西，世界的寶藏，所有山脈的國王，國王的榮譽(yù)"（Sheppard，89）。波托西礦區(qū)成為財(cái)富的代名詞，它們的名字也借給了西班牙帝國的其他礦區(qū)，特別是墨西哥的圣路易斯波托西礦區(qū)（成立于1550年）。還有一個(gè)至今仍在使用的西班牙語表達(dá)。vale un-Potosí，意思是 "那是價(jià)值連城的財(cái)富"。

By 1600, Spanish America produced ten times the quantity of silver then mined in Europe. Production kept rising through the 17th century, but as veins were steadily worked out, by 1700 the existing silver mines produced only a quarter of the silver per year they had yielded a century before. Thanks to new mines elsewhere, though, and greater investment in the mechanisation of mining and better understanding and availability of explosives, the overall silver production in the Americas increased again in the 18th century.

? ? ? ? ? 到1600年，西班牙美洲的銀產(chǎn)量是當(dāng)時(shí)歐洲銀產(chǎn)量的十倍。在整個(gè)17世紀(jì)，美洲銀產(chǎn)量不斷上升，但隨著礦脈的不斷開采，到1700年，現(xiàn)有銀礦的年產(chǎn)量?jī)H為一個(gè)世紀(jì)前的四分之一。不過，由于其他地方的新礦，以及對(duì)采礦機(jī)械化的更多投資和對(duì)炸藥的更好理解和供應(yīng)，美洲的總體銀產(chǎn)量在18世紀(jì)再次增加。

The labour that extracted silver from mines was forced in the encomienda license system, which gave its holder the right to use local labour for free in return for offering a nominal degree of security and the "opportunity" to be educated in the Christian religion. As the Spanish state took one-fifth of all precious metals from the Americas, so the total exploitation of labourers was not discouraged. However, as diseases and poor working conditions eventually took such a severe toll on local populations, a rethink was needed. The encomienda system was consequently replaced by one of low pay, the repartimiento system, called the mita system in the South American colonies. African slaves were also brought to work in the mines; over 100,000 slaves were shipped to Mexico alone between 1521 and 1650, largely to make up for the shortfall in native labourers as the Americas became steadily more and more depopulated.

? ? ? ? ? 從礦場(chǎng)提取白銀的勞動(dòng)力在監(jiān)護(hù)征賦制度中被強(qiáng)制使用，該制度給予其持有人免費(fèi)使用當(dāng)?shù)貏趧?dòng)力的權(quán)利，以換取提供名義上的安全和接受基督教教育的 "機(jī)會(huì)"。由于西班牙國家從美洲拿走了所有貴金屬的五分之一，所以對(duì)勞工的全面剝削并沒有被阻止。然而，由于疾病和惡劣的工作條件最終對(duì)當(dāng)?shù)鼐用裨斐闪藝?yán)重的損失，因此需要進(jìn)行自責(zé)與懺悔。因此，監(jiān)護(hù)征賦制度被一種低報(bào)酬的制度所取代，即分派勞役制度，在南美殖民地稱為mita制度。非洲奴隸也被帶到礦區(qū)工作；在1521年至1650年期間，僅運(yùn)往墨西哥的奴隸就超過10萬名，這主要是為了彌補(bǔ)美洲人口逐漸減少而造成的本地勞動(dòng)力的不足。

Mines like those at Potosí caused the growth of cities around them to house those who toiled for the Spanish overlords. By 1600, Potosí, despite its elevation of over 13,000 feet (4000 m), had a population of 160,000. Potosí's Spanish-speaking population was the largest in the Americas, and the city became infamous for murderous feuds between the Europeans. Despite its wealth and ability to attract people, Potosí's remote location, altitude, and frontier dangers meant that the Spanish colonial government never selected it as a centre of local government or trade. The silver was transported on to blossoming ports like Buenos Aires on the Rio de la Plata, so named for the silver (plata) that was carried on its waters. Potosí's fate was to remain a large shambling shanty town that thrived only as long as the veins of silver held out.

? ? ? ? ?像波托西這樣的礦場(chǎng)促進(jìn)周圍城市的發(fā)展，以安置那些為西班牙霸主工作的人。到1600年，盡管波托西的海拔超過13,000英尺（4000米），但它有16萬人口常住。波托西的西班牙語人口是美洲最多的，該市因歐洲人之間的謀殺糾紛而臭名昭著。盡管波托西的財(cái)富吸引人，但其偏遠(yuǎn)的位置、海拔和邊疆的危險(xiǎn)意味著西班牙殖民政府從未選擇它作為當(dāng)?shù)卣蛸Q(mào)易中心。白銀被運(yùn)往布宜諾斯艾利斯等普拉塔河上的新興港口，普拉塔河因其河水中攜帶的銀子（plata）而得名。波托西仍然是一個(gè)大型的棚戶區(qū)，只要銀礦脈還在，它就會(huì)一直繁榮下去。

Such was the massive number of labourers involved in mines like Potosí that whole industries sprang up to support them, like coca production (the leaves were chewed to make the terrible underground conditions bearable for the miners). Ranches sprang up to provide the meat for workers and the mules to transport mined ore and refined silver. Then again, so much wheat and grain were demanded in these industrialised areas that surrounding rural areas suffered famines. To extract more silver, mercury was used in the process from around 1560, further deteriorating the working conditions of the mines, which were widely described as the "mouth of hell," spitting out silver but swallowing countless victims. The mita system was not abolished until 1821.

? ? ? ? ? 像波托西這樣的礦場(chǎng)涉及到大量的勞工，以至于整個(gè)行業(yè)都興起來支撐，比如古柯生產(chǎn)（咀嚼古柯葉是為了讓礦工能夠忍受可怕的地下條件）。牧場(chǎng)的興起是為了給工人提供肉食，以及提供騾子來運(yùn)輸開采的礦石和精煉的白銀。然后，這些工業(yè)化地區(qū)對(duì)小麥和谷物的需求如此之大，以至于周圍的農(nóng)村地區(qū)遭受饑荒。為了提取更多的銀，從1560年左右開始，汞被用于開采過程中，使礦場(chǎng)的工作條件進(jìn)一步惡化，礦場(chǎng)被廣泛描述為 "地獄之口"，吐出銀子卻吞下無數(shù)的受害者。直到1821年，mita制度才被廢除。

白銀流向歐洲與菲律賓

A not insignificant amount of the silver mined in the Americas stayed in the Americas. As more and more Europeans settled in cities, particularly the capitals of Mexico City and Lima, so more silver was needed to buy imported goods and for the elite to establish themselves in an increasingly industrialised environment. Even if they owned the land and encomiendas around the mines, the elite preferred urban life, and so the silver found its way back to enrich the cities of Spanish America. However, the very raison d’être of the empire was to extract wealth from colonies, and so the bulk of the silver mined was sent back to Spain.

? ? ? ? ? 在美洲開采的白銀中，有相當(dāng)一部分留在了美洲。隨著越來越多的歐洲人在城市定居，特別是在墨西哥城和利馬的首都，因此需要更多的銀子來購買進(jìn)口商品，并讓精英階層在日益工業(yè)化的環(huán)境中建立自己的地位。即使他們擁有礦山周圍的土地和莊園，但精英們更喜歡城市生活，因此，白銀又被用來充實(shí)西班牙美洲的城市。然而，帝國存在的理由就是要從殖民地榨取財(cái)富，所以大部分開采出來的銀子都被送回了西班牙。

The Spanish galleons that carried this wealth operated in annual treasure fleets that were loaded with so much silver they were widely called the plate fleets, (a corruption of the Spanish plata), even if they carried all manner of other valuables from emeralds to pepper. Portobelo (aka Puerto Bello) on the isthmus of Panama was the first major collection point for silver taken from the Potosí mines. The silver was sent by Spanish galleons to Panama on the western coast of the isthmus and from there overland by mule train to Portobelo (which had replaced Nombre de Dios in this capacity in 1596). The Englishman Francis Drake once described this corner of the Spanish Empire as "the treasure house of the world" (Cordingly & Falconer, 15).

? ? ? ? ? 運(yùn)載這些財(cái)富的西班牙大帆船每年都會(huì)組成運(yùn)寶船隊(duì)，這些船隊(duì)裝載了大量的白銀，因此被廣泛稱為 "板塊船隊(duì)"（西班牙文 "plata "的諧音），即使它們裝載了從綠寶石到胡椒的各種其他貴重物品。巴拿馬地峽上的波托貝洛（又稱貝洛港）是第一個(gè)從波托西礦區(qū)獲取白銀的主要收集點(diǎn)。這些銀子由西班牙大帆船運(yùn)到地峽西海岸的巴拿馬，然后從那里通過騾車運(yùn)到波托貝洛（1596年取代了諾布雷德迪奧斯的地位）。英國人弗朗西斯-德雷克曾將西班牙帝國的這個(gè)角落描述為 "世界的寶庫"（Cordingly & Falconer, 15）。

Huge quantities of silver also crossed the Pacific Ocean in the Manila galleons that returned to Spanish colonies in the Philippines (1565-1815). These galleons had brought valuable trade goods like spices and silk to the Americas, goods which were then shipped on to Europe. The silver was sent back to the Philippines to be used to buy the goods for the next voyage to the Americas. At their peak, each Manila galleon carried an average of 3 million silver pieces of eight per trip.

? ? ? ? ? 大量的白銀也隨著返回西班牙菲律賓殖民地的馬尼拉大帆船穿越太平洋（1565-1815）。這些大帆船為美洲帶來了寶貴的貿(mào)易貨物，如香料和絲綢，這些貨物隨后被運(yùn)往歐洲。銀子被運(yùn)往菲律賓，用于購買下一次運(yùn)到美洲的貨物。在高峰期，每艘馬尼拉大帆船每趟平均運(yùn)載300萬枚銀幣。

The massive influx of American silver and gold to European markets caused hyperinflation, not then a concept understood by many economists. Prices of commodities increased by 400% over the 16th century, and Spanish exports suffered as a consequence when wages rose to match. In addition, the Crown frittered away its precious metals, usually to secure loans from bankers long before the annual Spanish treasure fleets had even arrived in Europe.

? ? ? ? ? 美洲白銀和黃金大量涌入歐洲市場(chǎng)，造成了惡性通貨膨脹，當(dāng)時(shí)許多經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)家并不了解這個(gè)概念。商品的價(jià)格在16世紀(jì)增長(zhǎng)了400%，西班牙的出口也因此受到影響，因?yàn)楣べY也隨之上漲。此外，王室將其貴重金屬揮霍一空，通常是為了在西班牙每年的財(cái)寶船隊(duì)到達(dá)歐洲之前就從銀行家那里獲得貸款。

The so-called second wave of Spanish silver of the 18th century was better managed and helped improve Spain's fortunes again. As the historian J. H. Parry notes:

? ? ? ? ? The flow of silver steadily increased; it irrigated the economic soil of Old and New Spain, and enriched Cadiz and Barcelona. Together with the gold of Brazil, it helped to finance the early industrial revolution of northern Europe; and since the highest demand for silver was felt, and the highest prices paid, in the Far East, it helped also to finance the commercial and military operations of the East India Companies, and to quicken European maritime trade all around the world (313).

? ? ? ? ? 18世紀(jì)所謂的第二次西班牙白銀浪潮得到了更好的管理，有助于再次改善西班牙的命運(yùn)。正如歷史學(xué)家J.H.Parry所指出的：

? ? ? ? ? 白銀的流量穩(wěn)步增長(zhǎng)；它灌溉了新舊西班牙的經(jīng)濟(jì)土壤，并使加的斯和巴塞羅那變得富裕。它與巴西的黃金一起，為北歐的早期工業(yè)革命提供了資金；由于遠(yuǎn)東地區(qū)對(duì)白銀的需求最大，價(jià)格也最高，它還為東印度公司的商業(yè)和軍事行動(dòng)提供了資金，并加快了歐洲在世界各地的海上貿(mào)易（313）。

The silver that was destined for the safe deposit boxes of the government and wealthy investors in Spain had first to run many risks. Smugglers were keen to syphon off silver bars before the state could claim its tax levies. Corruption was rife amongst the accountants at the mines, those in charge of the silver's collection and transport to key ports like Acapulco, Panama, and Buenos Aires, and the silver masters who were responsible for its shipment across the Atlantic.

? ? ? ? ? 白銀的目的地是西班牙政府和富有的投資者的保險(xiǎn)箱，首先要冒很多風(fēng)險(xiǎn)。走私者熱衷于在國家征收稅款之前抽走銀條。礦場(chǎng)的會(huì)計(jì)、負(fù)責(zé)收集和運(yùn)輸白銀到阿卡普爾科、巴拿馬和布宜諾斯艾利斯等重要港口的人以及負(fù)責(zé)將白銀運(yùn)過大西洋的銀匠之間的腐敗現(xiàn)象十分猖獗。

Then there was the threat from the sea - the buccaneers, pirates, and privateers of all nationalities who were keen to intercept the Spanish galleons as they sailed the Atlantic. In 1579, for example, Francis Drake captured the Nuestra Se?ora de la Concepción off the coast of Peru, which was taking treasure that included 26 tons of silver bullion. In 1628, a Dutch force of 31 ships led by Admiral Piet Pieterszoon Hein (1577-1629) captured the entire New Spain treasure fleet on its way to Havana. Hein managed to seize 46 tons of silver and many other valuables besides. Storms were an even greater threat and accounted for many wrecks like the Nuestra Se?ora de Atocha, which was carrying a cargo worth $400 million, which included 20 tons of silver when it was sunk in a storm in 1622 off the Florida Keys.

? ? ? ? ? 然后是來自海上的威脅——各種國籍的海盜和私掠者，他們熱衷于攔截航行在大西洋上的西班牙大帆船。例如，1579年，弗朗西斯-德雷克在秘魯海岸捕獲了 "Nuestra Se?ora de la Concepción "號(hào)，該船裝載的財(cái)寶包括26噸銀條。1628年，由海軍上將皮特·彼得松·海因（1577-1629）率領(lǐng)的一支由31艘船組成的荷蘭部隊(duì)在前往哈瓦那的途中捕獲了整個(gè)新西班牙寶藏艦隊(duì)。海因設(shè)法繳獲了46噸白銀和許多其他貴重物品。風(fēng)暴是一個(gè)更大的威脅，也是許多船只沉沒的原因，比如 "阿托查 "號(hào)，它載有價(jià)值4億美元的貨物，其中包括20噸白銀，1622年它在佛羅里達(dá)群島附近的風(fēng)暴中沉沒。

Still, the silver kept coming despite these difficulties, and the Spanish Crown was so enriched it became overconfident in the constancy of its supply and its military capabilities, stretching the empire beyond its limits so that it reached a tipping point of neglect and underfunding. Even the riches of Potosí could not meet the enormous costs of raising Spanish armies across Europe, especially when they were defeated armies. By the mid-17th century, the empire had long attracted the covetous eyes of other European nations eager to sweep in and challenge Spain's dominance. States like France, the Netherlands, and Britain, who were now building their own lucrative empires, used their powerful and more modern navies with devastating effect to reshape the world map, both Old and New.

? ? ? ? ?盡管困難重重，白銀還是源源不斷運(yùn)往歐洲，西班牙王室非常富有，它對(duì)其供應(yīng)的穩(wěn)定性和軍事能力過于自信，使帝國的發(fā)展超出了其極限，以至于達(dá)到了忽視和資金不足的臨界點(diǎn)。即使波托西的財(cái)富也無法滿足西班牙在歐洲各地組建軍隊(duì)的巨大成本，特別是當(dāng)這些軍隊(duì)?wèi)?zhàn)敗時(shí)。到17世紀(jì)中葉，這個(gè)帝國早已吸引了其他歐洲國家覬覦的目光，他們渴望掃蕩并挑戰(zhàn)西班牙的統(tǒng)治地位。像法國、荷蘭和英國這樣的國家，現(xiàn)在正在建立自己有利可圖的帝國，他們利用自己強(qiáng)大的、更加現(xiàn)代化的海軍，以毀滅性的效果重塑世界，包括新舊世界。

問題與解答

西班牙人是如何處理他們的白銀的？

The Spanish melted down silver and mined it to create bullion bars and coinage. These were then shipped to the Philippines and Europe to use in trade and to pay for armies.

? ? ? ? ? 西班牙人將銀子開采并融化，制成銀條和銀幣。然后，白銀被運(yùn)往菲律賓和歐洲，用于貿(mào)易和支付軍隊(duì)的費(fèi)用。

西班牙征服者從哪里獲得金銀？

The Spanish conquistadors got their gold and silver by stealing and melting down artefacts and from mines in Mexico, Bolivia, and Peru.

? ? ? ? ? 西班牙征服者通過偷竊和熔化文物以及從墨西哥、玻利維亞和秘魯?shù)牡V場(chǎng)獲得金銀。

為什么白銀對(duì)西班牙人來說如此重要？

Silver was important to the Spanish because the Americas produced ten times the silver produced in Europe. It was used to buy goods from Asia and to pay for armies to expand the Spanish Empire.

? ? ? ? ? 白銀對(duì)西班牙人很重要，因?yàn)槊乐薜陌足y產(chǎn)量是歐洲的十倍。它被用來從亞洲購買商品和支付軍隊(duì)費(fèi)用，以擴(kuò)大西班牙帝國。

參考書目：

Alan Covey, R. . Inca Apocalypse. Oxford University Press, 2020.

Carballo, David M. Collision of Worlds. Oxford University Press, 2020.

Cervantes, Fernando. Conquistadores. Allen Lane, 2020.

D. A. Brading and Harry E. Cross. "Colonial Silver Mining: Mexico and Peru." The Hispanic American Historical Review, Vol. 52, No. 4 (Nov., 1972), pp. 545-79.

Hugh Thomas. Golden Age. Penguin Books, 2022.

Kris Lane. "Potosí." New World Objects of Knowledge, A Cabinet of Curiosities?, edited by Mark Thurner, Juan Pimentel (eds). University of London Press, Institute of Latin American Studies., 2021

Olson, James S. Historical Dictionary of the Spanish Empire, 1402-1975. Greenwood, 1991.

Parry, J.H. (John Horace). The Spanish Seaborne Empire. Alfred A Knopf, 1966.

Sheppard, Si & Rava, Giuseppe. Cuzco 1536–37. Osprey Publishing, 2021.

Wise, Terence & McBride, Angus. The Conquistadores. Osprey Publishing, 1980.

原文作者：Mark Cartwright

????????? 駐意大利的歷史作家。他的主要興趣包括陶瓷、建筑、世界神話和發(fā)現(xiàn)所有文明的共同思想。他擁有政治哲學(xué)碩士學(xué)位，是《世界歷史百科全書》的出版總監(jiān)。

原文網(wǎng)址：https://www.worldhistory.org/article/2049/the-silver-of-the-conquistadors/

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