第一部分? 歷史

? ? ? ? ? 公元500-1500年間，世界發(fā)生了巨大的變化。西羅馬帝國于476年瓦解，其戰(zhàn)利品被日耳曼部落瓜分。西哥特人、法蘭克人、倫巴第人和其他一些民族在伊比利亞半島、法國、勃艮第、德國和意大利各地建立了自己的王國。從曾經(jīng)龐大統(tǒng)一的羅馬帝國中產(chǎn)生了三個主要勢力：拜占庭的東羅馬帝國、教皇勢力和伊斯蘭哈里發(fā)。拜占庭帝國代表了羅馬遺產(chǎn)在東方的延續(xù)性。在西方，羅馬天主教會填補了政治、文化、知識、宗教和行政方面的真空，而交戰(zhàn)中的日耳曼部落卻沒有能力填補這一真空。如果說拜占庭和教皇制度體現(xiàn)了羅馬的連續(xù)性，那么，伊斯蘭教則代表了激進的變革和另一種連續(xù)性。伊斯蘭教不僅是一種新宗教，還對基督教羅馬和拜占庭構(gòu)成了神學(xué)挑戰(zhàn)。伊斯蘭帝國構(gòu)成了一個新的政治、經(jīng)濟和文化秩序，其力量、財富和先進性遠遠超過了其在拉丁西方的對手。然而，在征服了中東的拜占庭領(lǐng)土后，伊斯蘭帝國吸收了古希臘人的知識和科學(xué)傳統(tǒng)，并將這些傳統(tǒng)重新引入歐洲。

Tremendous changes occurred in world history between 500 and 1500. The Western Roman Empire collapsed in 476, the spoils of which were divided among Germanic tribes. The Visigoths, Franks, Lombards, and others carved out kingdoms in the Iberian Peninsula, France, Burgundy, Germany, and the Italian states. Out of a once vast united Roman Empire arose three main powers: the Eastern Roman Empire of Byzantium, the papacy, and the Islamic caliphate. The Byzantine Empire represented the continuity of the Roman legacy in the East. In the West the Roman Catholic Church would fill the political, cultural, intellectual, religious, and administrative vacuum that the warring Germanic tribes were ill equipped to fill. If Byzantium and the papacy embodied continuity with Rome, Islam represented both radical change and continuity. Islam was not only a new religion that posed a theological challenge to Christian Rome and Byzantium. The Islamic empire constituted a new political, economic, and cultural order whose power, wealth, and sophistication far exceeded those of its rivals in the Latin West. Yet having conquered Byzantine territories in the Middle East, the Islamic empire absorbed the intellectual and scientific traditions of the ancient Greeks and would reintroduce these into Europe.

? ? ? ? ? 盡管羅馬帝國在第四世紀就已經(jīng)正式皈依基督教，但在中世紀之初，歐洲的大多數(shù)民族仍然是異教徒。第五至第十二世紀出現(xiàn)了巨大的傳教活動浪潮，最終使不列顛群島、斯堪的納維亞半島、中歐、巴爾干半島、羅斯和波羅的海地區(qū)實現(xiàn)了基督教化，人們要么接受天主教，要么接受東正教。教皇的權(quán)力隨著基督教的擴張而上升，但這一權(quán)力將受到西方強大王國的挑戰(zhàn)和制約，這些王國對教皇日益增長的世俗權(quán)威感到不滿，但又需要教皇來支持自己的合法性。拜占庭皇帝和牧首之間類似的緊張關(guān)系引發(fā)了重大的教義爭論，為東正教和拉丁基督教之間的大分裂奠定了基礎(chǔ)。到了中世紀晚期，商業(yè)革命和西歐城鎮(zhèn)的興起使西方基督教商人有能力與伊斯蘭勢力和拜占庭帝國的全球經(jīng)濟網(wǎng)絡(luò)相競爭。

Although the Roman Empire had officially converted to Christianity in the fourth century, at the outset of the Middle Ages most of the peoples of Europe were still pagans. The fifth to 12th centuries witnessed a great wave of missionary activity, culminating in the Christianization of the British Isles, Scandinavia, Central Europe, the Balkans, Russia, and the Baltics, either to Catholic or to Orthodox Christianity. The power of the papacy increased with the expansion of Christianity, but this power would be challenged and checked by the emergence of strong Western kingdoms resentful of the temporal authority of the popes yet needing them to bolster their own legitimacy. Similar tensions between Byzantine emperors and patriarchs sparked major doctrinal controversies that would lay the basis of the Great Schism between Orthodox and Latin Christendom. By the High Middle Ages, the commercial revolution and the rise of towns in western Europe placed Western Christian merchants in a position to compete on par with the global economies and networks of Islam and Byzantium.

? ? ? ? ? 基督教徒、穆斯林和猶太社區(qū)在西歐、拜占庭和伊斯蘭教的帝國中交織在一起。在羅馬滅亡之前，猶太人和基督徒曾在不同時期感受到羅馬人的憤怒；在羅馬改朝換代之后，猶太人將越來越多地成為基督教迫害的對象?；浇痰捏@人崛起成為猶太教革命的催化劑。為了維護和加強其宗教，拉比學(xué)者們寫下了口述法，并將生活的各個方面編入《塔木德》中。因此，猶太人社區(qū)在整個散居地保持了顯著的完整性和同質(zhì)性，即使他們在文化上與他們所屬的伊斯蘭和基督教世界同化。中世紀時期，基督教徒、穆斯林和猶太人之間的文化、知識和商業(yè)合作與影響碰撞出許多 “黃金時代”。它也沾染了十字軍東征、圣戰(zhàn)、世俗戰(zhàn)爭和社會暴力的鮮血，因為宗教少數(shù)群體被屠殺或被流放出基督教和伊斯蘭教的領(lǐng)域。具有諷刺意味的是，中世紀的結(jié)束是以宗教間的關(guān)系為深刻標志的：1453年奧斯曼帝國對君士坦丁堡的征服，格拉納達的陷落以及猶太人和許多穆斯林被驅(qū)逐出西班牙，猶太人被驅(qū)逐出德國并遷往波蘭，猶太人的財富、猶太人和穆斯林的技術(shù)使發(fā)現(xiàn)之旅成為可能，以及西方人文主義和理性主義的崛起，如果沒有穆斯林和猶太知識分子將古典知識傳入西方，就不可能出現(xiàn)新的局面。

Christian, Muslim, and Jewish communities intermingled in the empires of Western Europe, Byzantium, and Islam. Before the Fall of Rome, Jews and Christians had at different times felt the wrath of the Romans; after Rome’s conversion, Jews would increasingly fall victim to Christian persecution. The stunning rise of Christendom became the catalyst for a revolution in Judaism. To preserve and reinforce their religion, rabbinic scholars wrote down the Oral Law and codified every aspect of life in the Talmud. As a result, Jewish communities maintained a remarkable integrity and homogeneity throughout the Diaspora, even as they assimilated culturally to the Islamic and Christian worlds to which they also belonged. The medieval period was peppered with many “golden ages” of cultural, intellectual, and commercial cooperation and influence among Christians, Muslims, and Jews. It was also stained with the blood of the Crusades, jihad, and secular wars and social violence as religious minorities were massacred or exiled from Christian and Islamic realms. It is perhaps ironic to note that the close of the Middle Ages is marked so profoundly by interfaith relations: the Ottoman conquest of Constantinople in 1453, the fall of Granada and the expulsion of the Jews and many Muslims from Spain, the expulsion of Jews from Germany and their relocation to Poland, the voyages of discovery made possible by Jewish wealth and Jewish and Muslim technology, and the ascendancy of Western humanism and rationalism that would not have been possible without the transmission of classical knowledge into the West by Muslim and Jewish intellectuals.

西歐歷史概況

基督教在西羅馬帝國的發(fā)展

? ? ? ? ? 天主教（或尼西亞三位一體主義，見第5頁）基督教成為西羅馬帝國以及后來的西歐王國的主導(dǎo)宗教，考慮到它在第一世紀的巴勒斯坦僅作為一個猶太教派的卑微起源，這是歷史上一個了不起的事件。我們必須認識到，基督教從一開始就是一個傳教士的宗教，并把傳教作為宗教活動的一個基本組成部分。還必須記住，基督教的擴展是不平衡的，缺乏統(tǒng)一性，這本身就反映了早期基督教團體及其多個教會的雜亂組合，這些團體和教會的共存展現(xiàn)著基督教的歷史發(fā)展。此外，基督教的所有表現(xiàn)形式都必須與其他宗教傳統(tǒng)競爭。羅馬多神論、希臘化的哲學(xué)傳統(tǒng)（如斯多葛主義），以及新的宗教運動，如禁欲主義、二元論的摩尼教。那么，基督教是如何擴張并成為帝國的官方宗教的呢？

That Catholic (or Nicene Trinitarian, see page 5) Christianity would become the dominant religion of the Western Roman Empire and later of the kingdoms of western Europe is a remarkable event in history considering its humble origins as a Jewish sect in first-century Palestine. It must be remembered that Christianity was from its very beginning a missionary religion and understood proselytization to be a fundamental part of religious practice. Further, it must also be recalled that the expansion of Christianity was uneven and lacking in uniformity, itself a reflection of the motley mix of early Christian groups and their multiple churches that coexisted and would mark the history of Christianity. In addition, Christianity in all its manifestations had to compete with other religious traditions: Roman cults, Hellenistic philosophical traditions such as Stoicism, as well as new religious movements such as ascetic, dualistic Manicheism. How then did Christianity expand and become the official religion of the empire?

? ? ? ? ? 基督教的開始是一種城市現(xiàn)象。正如《圣保羅書》和《使徒行傳》所示，第一批傳教士在地中海的主要大都市組建了教會，其中以安提阿、亞歷山大和羅馬最為重要，這一趨勢將在整個羅馬帝國持續(xù)下去。像猶太人一樣，基督徒不愿意認同羅馬帝國的多神論。在第二和第三世紀，由于羅馬帝國在其北部邊境面臨著來自日耳曼部落越來越多的威脅，羅馬當局開始將基督教團體的活動，特別是他們拒絕遵守國教的行為，視為潛在的煽動行為。羅馬人對基督徒的懷疑在帝國的迫害中達到了頂點，這些迫害首先由德西烏斯皇帝（249-251）發(fā)起，并得到瓦勒良皇帝（253-260）和戴克里先皇帝（284-305）的支持。當時的基督徒拒絕服從帝國的法令——遵守國教，祈求羅馬諸神在與入侵的哥特人的戰(zhàn)爭中幫助羅馬。

Christianity began as an urban phenomenon. As the Letters of Saint Paul and the Acts of the Apostles indicate, the first missionaries formed churches in the major metropolises of the Mediterranean, with Antioch, Alexandria, and Rome being the most important, and this trend would continue throughout the Roman Empire. Like Jews, Christians were loath to participate in Roman imperial polytheistic cults. In the second and third centuries, as the Roman Empire experienced increasing threat from Germanic tribes along its northern frontiers, the Roman authorities began to regard the activities of Christian communities, and particularly their refusal to observe the state religion, as potentially seditious. Roman suspicion of Christians would reach its apogee in the imperial persecutions first ordered by Emperor Decius (r. 249–251) and seconded by Emperors Valerian (253–260) and Diocletian (r. 284– 305), when Christians refused to obey the imperial decree to observe the state religion and supplicate the Roman gods to aid Rome in its wars with the invading Goths.

基督教：從受迫害的教派到國家宗教

? ? ? ? ? 戴克里先在303年至305年期間實施的迫害特別殘酷，但基督徒殉道者的堅定和勇氣引起了（甚至對自己宗教深信不疑的）異教徒的同情心。戴克里先在東方的副手凱撒-伽列里烏斯（Caesar Galerius）遵循其上司制定的政策，對基督徒的迫害也同樣激烈。然而，伽列里烏斯的妻子是基督徒，她對受壓迫的同胞的同情心可能促使她敦促丈夫結(jié)束迫害。305年，成為東方皇帝的伽列里烏斯發(fā)布了一項《寬容詔書》，他給予基督徒寬恕，條件是他們要為帝國的安全，向他們的神祈禱。西方皇帝君士坦?。?06-337年）和他的東方同行利西尼烏斯（308-324年）更進一步，于313年聯(lián)合發(fā)布了《米蘭敕令》，給予基督教和所有其他宗教平等的合法地位，并將迫害期間被沒收的財產(chǎn)還給基督徒。君士坦丁因在東方建立了一個新的首都——君士坦丁堡（也被稱為新羅馬）而聞名，它位于博斯普魯斯河畔的拜占庭（拜占斯）。

The persecutions inflicted under Diocletian between 303 and 305 were particularly brutal, but the steadfastness and courage of the Christian martyrs aroused the sympathy of even convinced pagans. Diocletian’s deputy in the East, Caesar Galerius, followed the policy established by his superior and was just as vigorous in his persecution of the Christians. Galerius’s wife was Christian, however, and her sympathies for her oppressed coreligionists may have moved her to urge her husband to put an end to the persecutions. In 311, shortly before his death, Galerius, who had become emperor of the East in 305, issued an Edict of Toleration that granted an indulgence to Christians provided they pray to their god for the safety of the republic. The Western emperor Constantine (r. 306–337) and his Eastern counterpart Licinius (r. 308–324) went even further in their joint issuing of the Edict of Milan in 313, which accorded Christianity and all other religions an equal status of legitimacy and restored to Christians properties that had been confiscated during the period of the persecutions. Constantine is famous for having built a new capital in the East, Constantinople (also called the New Rome), in Byzantium on the Bosphorus River.

尼西亞會議（325年）和《狄奧多西法典》

? ? ? ? ? 四世紀初，基督教被關(guān)于基督在救贖歷史中的作用的教義爭論所困擾。為了結(jié)束爭論，君士坦丁在325年召開了第一次尼西亞會議，會議確認耶穌與天父具有相同的屬性，反對亞歷山大的牧師阿里烏斯（約280-336）提出的阿里烏斯信仰，即基督只是具有類似的屬性。尼西亞會議定義了正統(tǒng)的“公教”基督教，而短暫統(tǒng)一帝國的皇帝狄奧多西一世（379-395）在389-392年的狄奧多西法令中承認這一基督教分支為官方國教。狄奧多西法令取消了非尼西亞基督徒的教會職務(wù)，并通過宣布異教節(jié)日為工作日、禁止血祭儀式、關(guān)閉羅馬神廟和解散羅馬圣母院，廢除了羅馬宗教的最后殘余。這些行動并沒有完全消除基督教的敵對教派；阿里烏主義（亞流主義）繼續(xù)蔓延，一些向野蠻人傳教的最成功的是阿里烏派，大多數(shù)日耳曼部落也是如此，這些部落后來導(dǎo)致了西羅馬帝國的消亡。盡管如此，尼西亞會議和狄奧多西法令確實為尼西亞基督教在未來幾個世紀里在西羅馬帝國和東羅馬帝國的至高地位奠定了基礎(chǔ)。

In the early fourth century Christianity was riven by doctrinal controversies over the role of Christ in salvation history. In an attempt to end the controversies, Constantine convoked the first Council of Nicaea in 325, which confirmed Jesus as of the same substance as the Father against the Arian belief, propounded by the priest Arius of Alexandria (c. 280–336), that Christ was only of a similar substance. The Nicene formula would define orthodox “catholic” Christianity, and it was this branch of Christianity that Emperor Theodosius I (r. 379–395), who had briefly reunited the empire, recognized as the official state religion in the Theodosian decrees of 389–392. The Theodosian decrees removed non-Nicene Christians from ecclesiastical office and abolished the last visible remnants of Roman religion by declaring pagan feasts as workdays, banning ritual blood sacrifice, closing Roman temples, and disbanding the Vestal Virgins of Rome. These actions did not entirely do away with rival sects of Christianity; Arianism continued to spread, and some of the most successful missionaries to the barbarians were Arians, as were most of the Germanic tribes that would subsequently cause the demise of the Western Empire. Nevertheless, the Council of Nicaea and the Theodosian decrees did establish the basis for the supremacy of Nicene Christianity in the Western and Eastern Roman Empires in the coming centuries.

主教的出現(xiàn)

? ? ? ? ? 隨著基督教在帝國的城市中心和軍隊中的擴張，該宗教逐漸在農(nóng)村扎根。禁欲主義者從基督在沙漠中的40天靜修中得到啟發(fā)，退休后生活在羅馬帝國的偏遠地區(qū)，背離了城市文明。雖然有些苦行者回避所有的人際接觸，但大多數(shù)人會組成苦行社區(qū)，致力于祈禱、禁食和其他自我否定的行為，并從事體力勞動。這些苦行僧團體是六世紀出現(xiàn)的修道院團體的先驅(qū)。

Along with Christianity’s expansion in the urban centers of the empire and among the ranks of the army, the religion took root in the countryside. Anchorites took inspiration from Christ’s 40-day retreat in the desert and retired to live in remote areas of the Roman Empire, turning their back on urban civilization. While some ascetics shunned all human contact, most would form ascetic communities, devoting themselves to prayer, fasting and other acts of self-denial, and manual labor. These ascetic communities were the precursors of the monastic communities that emerged in the sixth century.

? ? ? ? ? 基督教的成功歸功于一種組織結(jié)構(gòu)的發(fā)展，這種結(jié)構(gòu)能夠維持其成員，使其持續(xù)增長，并促進教會的團結(jié)。最初，這種凝聚力是通過選舉教會長老（長老）和執(zhí)事（“服務(wù)者”）來實現(xiàn)的，他們組織并資助社區(qū)的傳教與慈善工作。決定性的發(fā)展是創(chuàng)立了episkopos（主教）的形象，被任命為協(xié)調(diào)和監(jiān)督擁有一個以上教會的城市中心的基督教社區(qū)的活動。主教還負責監(jiān)督在其管轄區(qū)域附近建立的禁欲主義團體的活動。在各教會之間的教派和教義分歧越來越大的情況下，主教們在大公會議上會面，以解決基本爭端并確定官方教會教義。隨著越來越多的富人和貴族家庭接受基督教并向教會提供大量捐款，主教也被授權(quán)管理其新獲得的財富。

The success of Christianity is owed to the development of an organizational structure that sustained its members, perpetuated its growth, and fomented church unity. Initially this cohesion was achieved through the election of church presbyters (elders) and deacons (“those who serve”) who organized and patronized the community’s missionary and charitable work. The decisive development was the creation of the figure of the episkopos (bishop) appointed to coordinate and oversee the activities of Christian communities in urban centers that had more than one church. Bishops also oversaw the activities of ascetic communities established near the region under their jurisdiction. In the wake of growing sectarian and dogmatic differences among the churches, bishops met at ecumenical councils to resolve fundamental disputes and define official church dogma. As more and more wealthy and aristocratic families embraced Christianity and made substantial donations to the church, the bishop also became empowered to administer its newly acquired property and wealth.

? ? ? ? ? 主教還在羅馬當局面前代表教會的利益，這一角色在帝國的迫害中會獲得更大的聲望。許多主教殉教，而其他主教則確保這些人的犧牲將成為其他基督徒的驕傲和鼓舞源泉，鼓勵他們堅定地保持自己的信仰。在狄奧多西法令頒布后，主教們有效地建立了一個與帝國權(quán)威平行的宗教政府。主教管理一個教區(qū)（一個主要城市及其周邊地區(qū)），與羅馬行政官所管理的省級教區(qū)相一致。帝國變成了基督教國家，主教們與政府同步行動，執(zhí)行帝國的法令并承擔行政責任，使他們能夠填補476年西羅馬帝國解體后出現(xiàn)的行政、社會和文化真空。

The bishop also represented the interests of the church to Roman authorities, a role that would acquire greater prestige during the imperial persecutions. Many bishops were martyred, while others ensured that those deaths would be a source of pride and inspiration to other Christians, encouraging them to remain resolute in their faith. In the aftermath of the Theodosian decrees, bishops effectively created a religious government in parallel to the imperial authority: A bishop governed a diocese (a major city and its surrounding territory) coterminous with the provincial dioceses that Roman magistrates governed. Now that the empire was Christian, bishops acted in tandem with the government, enforcing imperial decrees and assuming administrative responsibilities that would enable them to fill the administrative, social, and cultural vacuum that ensued after the fall of the Roman Empire in 476.

部落群體被羅馬社會和軍事同化

? ? ? ? ? 在第四和第五世紀入侵西歐的日耳曼部落，于476年從羅馬手中奪取絕對權(quán)力后，其同化進程進一步加快。新的日耳曼統(tǒng)治者適應(yīng)了羅馬行政管理、稅收、錢幣、禮儀和供養(yǎng)制度的許多特點。一些人采用拉丁語作為官方語言。羅馬法影響了西哥特人，他們的國王亞拉里克二世在其《亞拉里克教規(guī)》（506）中參照了羅馬法。另一方面，我們不能說是完全同化，許多日耳曼部落保留了他們的習(xí)俗和傳統(tǒng)制度，如繼承制度。此外，在東哥特-意大利形成了一種雙重管理制度，哥特人管理自己的人口和其他非羅馬人口，而羅馬官員則管理羅馬人口。

The assimilation of the Germanic tribes who invaded western Europe in the fourth and fifth centuries accelerated after they seized definitive power from Rome in 476. The new Germanic rulers adapted many of the features of Roman administration, taxation, coinage, ceremonial, and patronage systems. Some adopted Latin as the official language. Roman law influenced the Visigoths, whose king, Alaric II, codified it in his Breviary of Alaric (506). On the other hand, one cannot speak of a complete assimilation. Many of the Germanic tribes retained their customs and traditional institutions, such as the system of inheritance. Moreover, in Ostrogoth Italy a dual system of administration developed in which the Goths governed their own and other non-Roman populations, while Roman officials governed the Roman populace.

? ? ? ? ? 這些日耳曼部落的語言、文化和社會組織與羅馬文明形成了巨大的反差；因此羅馬人用貶義詞‘野蠻人’來形容他們。日耳曼人部落是由酋長領(lǐng)導(dǎo)的部落，他們是獵人和戰(zhàn)士，主要靠畜牧業(yè)和突襲敵人的掠奪為生，而婦女和奴隸則致力于耕作。哥特式日耳曼部落意識到羅馬的弱點，他們越過萊茵河和多瑙河，入侵巴爾干省。

The language, culture, and social organization of these Germanic tribes contrasted greatly with the civilization of Rome; hence the Roman use of the pejorative term barbarians to describe them. Organized into tribes led by chieftains, the Germanic men were hunters and fighters who largely subsisted on animal husbandry and raiding their enemies for plunder, while the women and slaves dedicated themselves to farming. Perceiving the weakness of Rome, Gothic Germanic tribes crossed the Rhine and Danube Rivers and invaded the Balkan provinces.

野蠻人的入侵

? ? ? ? ? 330年，在拜占庭建立的君士坦丁堡，即“新羅馬”，是對羅馬舊都消亡的默許。本世紀初，羅馬政府所在地不得不向北轉(zhuǎn)移到米蘭，以躲避汪達爾人的入侵威脅。同樣的壓力迫使另一次轉(zhuǎn)移到亞得里亞海沿岸的拉文納。政府所在地的轉(zhuǎn)移并沒有緩解西方帝國所陷入的政治混亂。這種混亂不僅是由來自日耳曼部落的持續(xù)軍事壓力造成的，也是由西部各省相對于拜占庭東部的社會組織的衰弱造成的。首先，西方政府不得不將其所有資源用于保護其邊境。因此，它不能再維護和保護道路；盡管對公民征收越來越高的稅款，但貿(mào)易的下降和經(jīng)濟的停滯加劇了這一情況。同時，上層階級放棄了已經(jīng)比東方少得多的城市，建立了堅固的鄉(xiāng)村莊園（稱為latifundia），這是一種原封建制度，被殖民工人（coloni）為莊園主服務(wù)，以換取經(jīng)濟援助和面對野蠻人入侵者威脅的保護。

The founding of Constantinople, “the New Rome,” in Byzantium in 330 was a tacit admission of the demise of the old capital of Rome. Earlier in the century the seat of government in Rome had to be transferred farther north to Milan in order to escape the threat of Vandal invaders. The same pressure forced yet another transfer to Ravenna on the Adriatic coast. The transfers of the seat of government did not mitigate the political disarray into which the Western Empire had fallen. This disarray was nurtured not only by the constant military pressure from the Germanic tribes, but also by the weakening social organization of the Western provinces vis-à-vis the Byzantine East. To begin with, the Western government had to deploy all its resources in protecting its frontiers. Consequently, it could no longer maintain and protect the roads; a decline of trade and a stagnation of the economy, despite the imposition of ever higher taxes upon its citizens, resulted. At the same time the upper classes abandoned the cities, which already were far fewer than those in the East, and established fortified country estates, called latifundia, a protofeudal system in which colonized workers (coloni) served the owner of the estate in exchange for economic aid and protection from the barbarian invaders.

? ? ? ? ? 到了五世紀初，饑荒、瘟疫、過度征稅和軍事指揮官之間的內(nèi)訌使西方帝國很容易成為其敵人的獵物。西哥特人在國王亞拉里克一世（約370-410）的領(lǐng)導(dǎo)下，于410年洗劫了羅馬。匈奴人阿提拉和他的軍隊在452年入侵意大利，汪達爾人在455年再次洗劫了羅馬。日耳曼和匈奴酋長以羅馬皇帝羅慕路斯·奧古斯都的名義進行實際統(tǒng)治，但當西哥特將軍奧多亞塞（434-493）于476年廢黜羅慕路斯時，這種虛構(gòu)終于結(jié)束了，這也是西羅馬帝國滅亡的傳統(tǒng)日期。

By the early fifth century, famine, pestilence, overtaxation, and infighting between military commanders rendered the Western Empire easy prey for its enemies. The Visigoths, led by King Alaric I (c. 370–410), sacked Rome in 410. Attila the Hun and his army invaded Italy in 452, and the Vandals sacked Rome again in 455. Germanic and Hun chieftains exercised de facto rule in the name of the Roman emperor Romulus Augustulus, but this fiction was finally ended when the Visigothic general Odoacer (434–493) deposed Romulus in 476, the traditional date given for the fall of the Western Roman Empire.

? ? ? ? ? 日耳曼部落瓜分了西方帝國的領(lǐng)土。奧斯特羅戈特人統(tǒng)治著意大利；西哥特人統(tǒng)治著高盧南部和西班牙；汪達爾人控制著非洲和地中海西部；盎格魯人和撒克遜人統(tǒng)治著英國；勃艮第人統(tǒng)治著普羅旺斯；法蘭克人統(tǒng)治著高盧北部。除英國外，日耳曼統(tǒng)治者尊重并保留了許多羅馬文化、語言、法律和政府機構(gòu)，并將這些與日耳曼機構(gòu)混合在一起。法蘭克人、奧斯特羅戈特人、西哥特人和勃艮第人都宣稱服從拜占庭皇帝。日耳曼統(tǒng)治者也是基督徒，盡管他們是阿里安基督教的追隨者，在尼西亞基督教被宣布為官方教會教義的地區(qū)進行統(tǒng)治。如前所述，羅馬淪陷后，主教們保持了教會的組織和機構(gòu)的完整，這一事實可能促成了法蘭克人皈依羅馬認可的普世（"公教"）教會的關(guān)鍵決定。

The Germanic tribes carved up the Western Empire’s territories: The Ostrogoths ruled Italy; the Visigoths ruled southern Gaul and Spain; the Vandals controlled Africa and the western Mediterranean; the Angles and the Saxons ruled Britain; the Burgundians ruled Provence; and the Franks ruled northern Gaul. Except in Britain, the Germanic rulers respected and retained much of Roman culture, language, law, and governmental institutions, mixing these with Germanic institutions. The Franks, Ostrogoths, Visigoths, and Burgundians professed obedience to the Byzantine emperor. The Germanic rulers were also Christians, albeit followers of Arian Christianity, ruling over territories in which Nicene Christianity had been decreed the official church doctrine. As noted, after the fall of Rome the bishops maintained the church’s organization and institutions intact, a fact that may have contributed to the critical decision of the Franks to convert to the universal (“catholic”) church endorsed by Rome.

墨洛溫王朝

? ? ? ? ? 法蘭克王朝是由墨洛溫王朝的克洛維一世（Clovis I the Merovingian，481-511）建立的，他是一位雄心勃勃而又務(wù)實的統(tǒng)治者。他聯(lián)合了所有分散的法蘭克部落，征服了鄰近的勃艮第和西哥特王國（486-507），并贏得了本地高盧羅馬人的支持。他從高盧、勃艮第、奧斯特拉西亞和紐斯特利亞中打造了一個名為法蘭西的新王國，即法蘭克人的土地。墨洛溫王朝信仰阿利烏教派，但克洛維在496年左右皈依了尼西亞基督教，使他受到了高盧羅馬人、教區(qū)主教和拜占庭皇帝阿納斯塔修斯一世（Anastasius，491-518年）的青睞，后者在508年提名他為名譽執(zhí)政官?？寺寰S以傳統(tǒng)的羅馬方式慶祝他的提名，在圖爾舉行“進入”儀式（Adventus），在那里他向人群分發(fā)錢幣。

The Frankish dynasty was founded by Clovis I the Merovingian (r. 481–511), an ambitious and pragmatic ruler who united all the disparate Frankish tribes, conquered the neighboring Burgundian and Visigoth kingdoms (486–507), and won the support of the native Gallo-Romans. He forged a new kingdom called France, the land of the Franks, out of Gaul, Burgundy, Austrasia, and Neustria. The Merovingians were Arians, but Clovis’s conversion to Nicene Christianity circa 496 endeared him to the Gallo-Roman population, the diocesan bishops, and the Byzantine emperor Anastasius (r. 491–518), who nominated him honorary consul in 508. Clovis celebrated his nomination in traditional Roman fashion, staging a ritual “entry” (Adventus) into the capital at Tours, where he dispensed coins to the crowd.

? ? ? ? ? 盡管擁有羅馬統(tǒng)治的一些特征，克洛維和他的繼任者還是按照墨洛溫傳統(tǒng)進行獨立治理。王權(quán)是基于神話中的勇士英雄的后裔，而合法性則體現(xiàn)在統(tǒng)治者持續(xù)的軍事成功上。墨洛溫王朝的國王將王國作為他的個人領(lǐng)地來統(tǒng)治，在他死后由他的所有兒子平分。與晚期羅馬四君主制一樣，墨洛溫王國被認為是一個由多個統(tǒng)治者統(tǒng)治的單一實體，可以在一個統(tǒng)治者的領(lǐng)導(dǎo)下重新統(tǒng)一，這在克洛泰爾一世（558-561年）和克洛泰爾二世（584-629年）的統(tǒng)治期間短暫發(fā)生過。國王在經(jīng)濟上也是自給自足的，由保留給王室的土地（王室直轄區(qū)）的生產(chǎn)稅收（fisc）來支持。墨洛溫王朝試圖維持一個單一的中央集權(quán)政府，但由于自相殘殺、爭奪王國控制權(quán)的內(nèi)戰(zhàn)以及地方大亨們渴望盡可能多地保留自治權(quán)而遭到挫敗。

Despite assuming some trappings of Roman rule, Clovis and his successors governed independently and according to Merovingian tradition. Kingship was based on mythical descent from a warrior hero, and legitimacy manifested itself in the continued military success of the ruler. The Merovingian king ruled the kingdom as his personal fiefdom, which would be equally divided among all his sons upon his death. As was the Late Roman Tetrarchy, the Merovingian kingdom was conceived of as a single entity governed by multiple rulers, which could be reunited under one ruler, as occurred briefly during the reigns of Clotaire I (r. 558–561) and Clotaire II (r. 584–629). The king was also meant to be selfsufficient economically, supported by the taxes (fisc) from the production of the lands reserved to the Crown (the royal desmesne). Merovingian attempts to maintain a single, centralized government were thwarted by fratricide, civil wars for control of the realm, and local magnates who yearned to retain as much autonomy as possible.

? ? ? ? ? 為了安撫后者，墨洛溫王朝的國王任命當?shù)氐拇笕宋餅椴簦–omites，國王的伙伴和尊貴的皇家仆人，國王的“公共代理人”），這是一種新型的皇家官員，負責在他們沒有世襲權(quán)利的領(lǐng)土上進行防御、管理和裁決爭端。伯爵需向國王提供自己的士兵，而他們會獲得國王土地授予以確保其忠誠度。他們有義務(wù)向國王提供軍事支持，并以傳統(tǒng)的墨洛溫王朝的方式對國王進行禮節(jié)性的認可，將他舉在盾牌上。伯爵形象的建立是為了削弱土地貴族的權(quán)力，他們更有可能獲得其統(tǒng)治下民眾的忠誠。然而，這種策略適得其反，因為墨洛溫貴族之間的內(nèi)訌實際上加強了地方權(quán)貴的力量，他們能夠?qū)⒛鍦赝醭馁F族們玩弄于股掌之間，并勒索更多的權(quán)力以換取其軍事支持。

To appease the latter, the Merovingian kings appointed the local magnates to be counts (comites), a novel type of royal official responsible for the defense, administration, and adjudication of disputes in territories over which theyhad no hereditary claim. Counts would supply their own soldiers, who received land endowments to ensure their loyalty. They were obliged to lend military support to the king and would in turn ritually recognize him in the traditional Merovingian way by hoisting him up on their shields. The creation of the figure of the count was meant to undermine the power of the landed aristocrats, who would be more likely to command the loyalty of the populations under their rule. This tactic backfired, however, because the internecine infighting among the Merovingian nobles actually strengthened the hand of the counts, who were able to play one Merovingian against another and extort more power in exchange for their military support.

? ? ? ? ? 王室權(quán)力被另一個由墨洛溫王朝創(chuàng)建的機構(gòu)進一步削弱：宮廷市長，即王室法院的首席官員。達戈貝爾特一世（Dagobert I，623-639年）是最后一位對整個王國行使實權(quán)的墨洛溫國王，他死后，紐斯特利亞、奧斯特拉西亞和勃艮第的宮廷市長們增加了自己的政治權(quán)力。Arnulfings家族，又稱Pippinids家族，是法蘭克貴族家族，其成員擔任皇宮市長的職務(wù)。赫斯塔爾的丕平（Pippin the Younger，約635-714）于680年擔任奧斯特拉西亞的市長，687年擔任紐斯特利亞和勃艮第的市長，在法蘭克人的宮廷中行使實際權(quán)力，直到他去世。丕平的兒子查理·馬特（714-741年）是圖爾戰(zhàn)役（732年）中戰(zhàn)勝穆斯林軍隊的傳奇人物，他實際上統(tǒng)治了整個法蘭克王國。751年，當馬特的繼任者矮子丕平（Pippin the Short，751-768年）說服教皇扎卡里（Zachary，741-752年）批準他加冕并廢黜墨洛溫國王希爾德里克三世（Chideric III，743-751年）時，這種事實上的加洛林王朝統(tǒng)治局面正式確立。加洛林王朝將繼續(xù)統(tǒng)治神圣羅馬帝國的西歐各地，直到987年。

Royal power was further weakened by another Merovingian-created institution: the mayor of the palace, the chief official of the royal courts. After the death of Dagobert I (r. 623–639), the last Merovingian king to exercise real power over the entire realm, the mayors of the palace in Neustria, Austrasia, and Burgundy increased their political power. The Arnulfings, also known as the Pippinids, were the Frankish noble family whose members held the position of mayor of the palace. Pippin the Younger (c. 635–714) assumed the mayorship of Austrasia in 680 and of Neustria and Burgundy in 687 and exercised de facto power in the Frankish court until his death. Pippin’s son, Charles Martel (r. 714–741), the legendary victor over the Muslim army at the Battle of Tours (732), effectively ruled the entire Frankish kingdom. This situation of de facto Carolingian rule—so named after Charles Martel—was formalized in 751 when Martel’s successor, Pippin the Short (r. 751–768), convinced Pope Zachary (741–752) to sanction his coronation and depose the Merovingian king, Chideric III (r. 743–751). The Carolingians would continue to reign over various parts of western Europe in the Holy Roman Empire until 987.

加洛林王朝

? ? ? ? ? 加洛林王朝的國王們渴望復(fù)興西羅馬帝國，這一想法在800年教皇利奧三世（795-816）為該王朝最杰出的成員查理曼（768-814）加冕為奧古斯都皇帝（Imperator Augustus）時得到了實現(xiàn)。799年，羅馬人民襲擊了利奧三世，廢黜了他，并將他禁錮在一個修道院里。查理曼拒絕接受廢黜，并于800年12月前往羅馬，代表教皇召開會議。利奧得到了平反，為了表示感謝，他給查理曼加冕為奧古斯都皇帝。利奧認為恢復(fù)皇帝的職位很重要，這不僅是為了保護自己，也是為了對抗拜占庭的伊蘇里亞王朝，其統(tǒng)治者伊蘇里亞的利奧（717-741年）曾強行推行圣像破壞運動（“打破圣像”），禁止對圣像的崇拜。教皇為皇帝加冕的先例將在以后與世俗統(tǒng)治者的交往中為教廷服務(wù)。同時，帝王頭銜也符合查理曼自己的野心。加洛林王朝的法蘭克人相信，他們是古羅馬皇帝的神圣繼承人，他們作為新的 “亞伯拉罕的子孫”得到了統(tǒng)治帝國的神圣授權(quán)。查理曼的一位繼承人在寫給他的“競爭對手”拜占庭皇帝巴西爾一世（867-886年）的信中說：“法蘭克人給主帶來了許多實績，不僅是迅速相信，而且還使其他人皈依救贖之路……由于我們因著對基督的信仰，是亞伯拉罕的后裔……我們因著正確的思想，得到了羅馬帝國的正統(tǒng)。希臘人因為他們的……錯誤思想，已經(jīng)不再是羅馬人的皇帝了”（Rietbergen 94）。

The Carolingian kings aspired to revive the Western Roman Empire, an idea that would come to fruition in the crowning of the dynasty’s most illustrious member, Charlemagne (r. 768–814), as Imperator Augustus (August Emperor) in 800 by Pope Leo III (795–816). A year earlier in 799, the people of Rome attacked Leo III, deposed him, and confined him to a monastery. Charlemagne refused to accept the deposition and traveled to Rome in December 800 to hold a council on the pope’s behalf. Leo was vindicated and, in gratitude, crowned Charlemagne emperor. Leo deemed it important to revive the office of emperor not only to protect himself but also to counter the Byzantine Isaurian dynasty, whose ruler Leo the Isaurian (r. 717–741) had imposed the doctrine of iconoclasm (“breaking of images”), forbidding the worship of images as a form of “idolatry.” The precedent of a pope’s crowning an emperor would serve the papacy in its later dealings with secular rulers. At the same time the imperial title suited Charlemagne’s own ambitions. The Carolingian Franks were convinced that they were the divinely appointed heirs of the ancient Roman emperors who had received a holy dispensation to rule the empire as the new “seed of Abraham.” In a letter one of Charlemagne’s heirs wrote to his “competitor” the Byzantine emperor Basil I (r. 867–886), “the Frankish race has borne the Lord much fruit, not only by being quick to believe, but also by converting others to the way of salvation. . . . As we, through our faith in Christ, are the seed of Abraham, . . . we have received the government of the Roman Empire for our right thinking. The Greeks for their . . . wrong thinking, have ceased to be Emperors of the Romans” (Rietbergen 94).

? ? ? ? ? 在他統(tǒng)治期間，查理曼領(lǐng)導(dǎo)了一系列的軍事行動，為他的王國增加了倫巴第（776年）、薩克森（772年開始，804年征服）和西班牙邊疆區(qū)（巴塞羅那邊疆區(qū)）（778-812）。(著名的龍塞斯瓦耶斯隘口戰(zhàn)役是在778年發(fā)生的，在這次戰(zhàn)役中，巴斯克軍隊謀殺了布列塔尼邊疆區(qū)的領(lǐng)主羅蘭）。在他的兒子們的幫助下，查理曼繼續(xù)在多瑙河平原（794年）和波西米亞（805-806年）消滅了阿瓦爾人。查理曼于814年去世，他的王國包括法國、比利時、荷蘭、瑞士、德國西部、意大利大部分地區(qū)、西班牙東北部和科西嘉島。

During his reign Charlemagne led a series of military campaigns that added to his realm Lombardy (776), Saxonia (begun in 772 and conquered in 804), and the Spanish March (778–812). (The acclaimed Battle of Roncesvalles Pass during which Basque forces murdered Roland, the lord of the Breton March, dates from 778.) With the aid of his sons, Charlemagne went on to annihilate the Avar Huns in the Danubian plain (794) and the Slavs in Bohemia (805–806). At the time of his death in 814, the realm included France, Belgium, Holland, Switzerland, western Germany, most of Italy, northeastern Spain, and the island of Corsica.

? ? ? ? ? 加洛林王朝保持了墨洛溫王朝的習(xí)慣，即任命當?shù)氐拇笕宋餅椴?，以治理、管理司法和保衛(wèi)這個龐大的帝國。然而，與墨洛溫王朝不同的是，加洛林王朝利用土地貴族成員擔任這些職位，希望通過這種方式確保貴族的忠誠度。在這一點上，加洛林王朝遇到了與墨洛溫王朝相同的問題，即必須與野心勃勃的伯爵的專制主義作斗爭。法蘭克教會是加洛林王朝特別重要的盟友。在加洛林王朝的軍隊制服敵人后，傳教士的“軍隊”被派往各地，以贏得人們的支持，使他們皈依尼西亞基督教。事實證明，作為政府官員，教會人士的忠誠度略高于非宗教貴族。

The Carolingians maintained the Merovingian custom of appointing local magnates as counts to govern, administer justice, and defend the sprawling empire. Unlike the Merovingians, however, the Carolingians filled these positions with members of the landed aristocracy, hoping in this way to ensure the loyalty of the nobility. In this the Carolingians encountered the same problem as their Merovingian predecessors, having to contend with the despotism of ambitious counts. The Frankish Church was a particularly important ally of the Carolingians. After the Carolingian armies subdued their enemies, “armies” of missionaries were sent forth to win over the hearts and minds of the people and convert them to Nicene Christianity. Moreover, churchmen proved to be slightly more loyal than lay aristocrats as government officers.

加洛林王朝的分裂：公元843年的《凡爾登條約》?

? ? ? ? ?查理曼大帝的帝國遵循了使墨洛溫王國滅亡的同樣的不可控制的模式。國王不得不越來越多地依靠強大的伯爵來幫助管理王國，但他們只是削弱了國王的權(quán)力。在他的統(tǒng)治末期，查理曼與他唯一幸存的兒子和繼承人虔誠者路易（814-840年）分享了國王的稱號。在路易統(tǒng)治時期，帝國并沒有保持完整，因為法律規(guī)定他必須在查理曼的兒子們之間平均分配王國。路易的兒子洛泰爾和日耳曼人路易在833年反叛并擊敗了虔誠者路易。843年，凡爾登條約將查理曼的帝國正式分給了剩下的三位加洛林王朝的王子。洛泰爾（卒于855年）統(tǒng)治著洛塔林吉亞，這塊領(lǐng)土包括荷蘭、比利時、瑞士、阿爾薩斯-洛林和意大利；禿頭查理（卒于877年）聲稱擁有法國（西法蘭克）；而日耳曼人路易則統(tǒng)治著德國（東法蘭克）。

Charlemagne’s empire followed the same pattern of ungovernability that brought down the Merovingian kingdom. Increasingly, he had to rely on powerful counts to help manage his realm, but they only diminished his power. Toward the end of his reign, Charlemagne shared the imperial title with his only surviving son and successor, Louis the Pious (r. 814–840). The empire did not remain intact beyond Louis’s reign, since he was bound by law to distribute his kingdom equally among his sons. Louis’s sons Peppin and Louis the German rebelled against him and defeated him in 833. In 843 the Treaty of Verdun formally divided Charlemagne’s empire among the three remaining Carolingian princes: Lothar (d. 855) ruled over Lotharingia, a territory including Holland, Belgium, Switzerland, Alsace-Lorraine, and Italy; Charles the Bald (d. 877) claimed France; and Louis the German ruled Germany.

? ? ? ? ? 從長遠來看，《凡爾登條約》打破了政治權(quán)力的平衡，因為帝國在虔誠者路易的兒子們?nèi)ナ篮罄^續(xù)被分割。在隨后出現(xiàn)的政治真空中，土地貴族們地位上升，并能夠在教皇和國王爭奪權(quán)力的過程中，將他們的利益相互抵消?！斗矤柕菞l約》最持久的后果之一是神圣羅馬帝國的建立，由奧托一世大帝（962-973年）于962年正式建立。神圣羅馬帝國的起源是由遺留給日耳曼人路易的東法蘭克領(lǐng)土組成的。

In the long run, the Treaty of Verdun upset the balance of political power as the empire continued to be subdivided at the death of Louis the Pious’s sons. In the ensuing political vacuum, landed aristocrats gained ground and were able to play off the interests of popes and kings against one another as each jockeyed for power. One of the most enduring consequences of the Treaty of Verdun was the creation of the Holy Roman Empire, officially refounded in 962 by Otto I the Great (r. 962–973). In its origins, the Holy Roman Empire was forged out of the eastern Frankish territories bequeathed to Louis the German.

神圣羅馬帝國

? ? ? ? ? 公元899年，加洛林王朝最后一位擁有西方皇帝頭銜的阿努爾夫去世后，這個頭銜就被廢棄了，直到教皇約翰十二世（955-964年）于962年將皇帝頭銜授予奧托一世，以感謝他在意大利與對手的斗爭中給予他幫助。在隨后達成的名為“奧托尼亞姆特權(quán)”的協(xié)議中，奧托保證教皇對意大利的世俗權(quán)力，以換取教皇的承諾，即所有未來的教皇將向皇帝宣誓效忠。神圣羅馬帝國一直持續(xù)到1806年。盡管帝國權(quán)力與教皇之間的關(guān)系最初很緊密，但在帝國漫長的歷史中，與教皇在精神和世俗權(quán)力上的沖突、控制意大利的斗爭，以及對平衡皇帝權(quán)力與統(tǒng)治構(gòu)成帝國的各自領(lǐng)土權(quán)貴們政治愿望的常年追求，都是帝國的標志。

Following the death of Arnulf, the last of the Carolingians to bear the title of Emperor of the West, in 899, the title fell into disuse until Pope John XII (r. 955–964) bestowed the imperial title upon Otto I the Great in 962 in gratitude for aiding him in his struggles against his rivals in Italy. In a subsequent agreement called the Ottonian Privilege, Otto guaranteed the pope’s secular authority over Italy in exchange for the pope’s pledge that all future popes would swear fealty to the emperor. The Holy Roman Empire lasted until 1806. Despite the initial marriage of convenience between the Imperial power and papacy, the empire’s long history is marked by conflicts with the pope over spiritual and temporal authority, the struggle to control Italy, as well as the perennial quest to balance the power of the emperor against the political aspirations of the potentates who ruled the respective territories constituting the empire.

? ? ? ? ? 幾個世紀以來，神圣羅馬帝國由五個日耳曼王朝統(tǒng)治：奧托王朝（962-1002年）、薩利安王朝（法蘭克尼亞王朝，1024-1125年）、霍亨斯陶芬王朝（1137-1254年），隨后是大間歇期（1254-73年），隨著哈布斯堡王朝的建立（1273-1806年）而結(jié)束。哈布斯堡王朝被1347年至1437年的盧森堡王朝所打斷。帝國的地理范圍也隨時間變化，但最終包括德國、奧地利、阿爾薩斯-洛林、摩拉維亞、波西米亞、勃艮第、意大利、荷蘭、瑞士、波蘭部分地區(qū)和克羅地亞。從結(jié)構(gòu)上看，帝國是一個由當?shù)刂T侯王、王族或公爵管理的帝國產(chǎn)業(yè)聯(lián)盟；由主教或大主教管理的被稱為王族主教區(qū)的封建領(lǐng)土；以及帝國的自由城市，即從前的王族主教區(qū)，它們從主持工作的主教那里獲得獨立，直接服從于皇帝。

Over the centuries the Holy Roman Empire was ruled by five Germanic dynasties: the Ottonians (r. 962–1002), the Salasians (r. 1024– 1125), the Hohenstaufens (1137–1254), followed by the Great Interregnum (1254–73), which ended with the installation of the Habsburgs (1273–1806). The Habsburg dynasty was interrupted by the Luxembourg dynasty from 1347 to 1437. The geographical limits of the empire also changed over time but ultimately comprised Germany, Austria, Alsace-Lorraine, Moravia, Bohemia, Burgundy, Italy, the Netherlands, Switzerland, parts of Poland, and Croatia. Structurally the empire was a confederation of Imperial estates governed by a local king, prince, or duke; feudal territories called prince-bishoprics governed by a bishop or archbishop; and imperial free cities, former prince-bishoprics that gained their independence from the presiding bishop and were subject directly to the emperor.

? ? ? ? ? 在意識形態(tài)上，神圣羅馬帝國皇帝認為自己是基督的世俗代言人，與作為基督精神代言人的天主教教皇和拜占庭皇帝截然不同。但實際上，神圣羅馬帝國的皇帝從未行使過拜占庭皇帝那樣的權(quán)力和宗主權(quán)。這是因為他們遵循日耳曼的王權(quán)制度，由選定的“選舉人”選擇“羅馬人的國王”，然后由教皇確認其為皇帝。盧森堡皇帝查理四世（1355-78年）抓住了巴比倫之囚期間教皇制度被削弱和分裂的機會，成功地在1356年的金諭中取消了教皇批準和確認要求。與此同時，金詔書削弱了皇帝對地方公爵和王族的權(quán)力，他們贏得了對“領(lǐng)土統(tǒng)治”的承認，即獨立管理其領(lǐng)土的權(quán)利。

Ideologically the Holy Roman Emperors conceived of themselves as temporal vicars of Christ in contradistinction to the Catholic popes, who were the spiritual vicars of Christ, and to the Byzantine emperors. In reality, however, the Holy Roman Emperors never exercised the degree of power and suzerainty of their Byzantine counterparts. This is because they followed the system of German kingship whereby a select number of “electors” chose the “King of the Romans,” whom the pope then would confirm as emperor. Seizing upon the opportunity that a weakened and schismatic papacy afforded during the Babylonian Captivity, the Luxembourg emperor Charles IV (r. 1355–78) succeeded in eliminating the requisite of papal approval and confirmation in the Golden Bull of 1356. At the same time, however, the Golden Bull diminished the emperor’s power with respect to the local dukes and princes, who won the recognition of “territorial rule,” the right to govern their territories independently.

? ? ? ? ?對皇帝權(quán)力的結(jié)構(gòu)性限制是由皇帝們自己的政策和裝腔作勢所促成的。由于熱衷于模仿古羅馬帝國和查理曼帝國的輝煌，奧托王朝、薩利安王朝和霍亨斯陶芬王朝都癡迷于獲得對意大利的控制權(quán)及控制教皇制度。與意大利和教廷的政治糾葛在亨利四世屈辱地走到卡諾薩（卡諾莎之行）時達到了頂峰。當這位頑固不化的皇帝堅持保留任命主教的權(quán)利時，教皇格雷戈里報復(fù)性地將他逐出教會。由于擔心被逐出教會而失去政治權(quán)力，亨利赤腳穿越阿爾卑斯山，尋求教皇的赦免。然而，這只是成功地將注意力從帝國的德國中心地帶轉(zhuǎn)移開來，使當?shù)氐墓?、王族和國王能夠以犧牲皇帝的利益來加強他們的?quán)力。在教皇國方面，薩利安王朝皇帝在11世紀的“敘任權(quán)斗爭”（見第19頁）中在教皇手中遭受的失敗，與霍亨斯陶芬皇帝腓特烈一世（巴巴羅薩，1155-90年）和腓特烈二世（1220-50年）從教皇和倫巴第聯(lián)盟手中奪取教皇國控制權(quán)的失敗相似。事實上，倫巴第聯(lián)盟是一個由倫巴第公社組成的聯(lián)盟，他們在1167年聯(lián)合起來，反對巴巴羅薩入侵意大利，反對他在倫巴第的所有城鎮(zhèn)任命德意志官員。該聯(lián)盟在1187年擊潰了巴巴羅薩的軍隊。

The structural limitations on the emperor’s power were fueled by the policies and the pretenses of the emperors themselves. In their zeal to emulate the glories of the ancient Roman Empire and Charlemagne’s empire the Ottonians, Salasians, and Hohenstaufens were obsessed with gaining mastery over Italy and controlling the papacy. Political embroilments with Italy and the papacy culminated in Henry IV’s humiliating Walk to Canossa. When the intransigent emperor insisted upon reserving the right to invest bishops, Pope Gregory retaliated by excommunicating him. Fearing the loss of political power as a result of his excommunication, Henry “humiliated” himself by crossing the Alps barefoot to seek the pope’s pardon. Yet this only succeeded in diverting attention from the German heartland of the empire, enabling the local dukes, princes, and kings to strengthen their power at the expense of the emperor. With respect to the Papal States, the defeat the Salasian emperors suffered at the hands of the papacy during the Investiture Controversy (see p. 19) of the 11th century found its parallel in the failure of the Hohenstaufen emperors Frederick I Barbarossa (r. 1155–90) and Frederick II (r. 1220–50) to wrest control of the Papal States from the papacy and the Lombard League. Indeed, the Lombard League was an alliance of the communes of Lombardy that had banded together in 1167 to oppose Barbarossa’s invasion of Italy and his appointment of German officials in all the towns of Lombardy. The league routed Barbarossa’s forces in 1187.

? ? ? ? ? ?13世紀，當腓特烈二世通過繼承西西里島和那不勒斯而在意大利站穩(wěn)腳跟后，他將目光投向了整個半島，這場斗爭再次浮現(xiàn)。教皇英諾森三世承諾為腓特烈二世加冕為皇帝，條件是他放棄對西西里島和那不勒斯的控制，并進行十字軍東征以奪回耶路撒冷。腓特烈被英諾森的繼任者和諾理三世加冕為皇帝（1216-27）。和諾理三世急于遵守第四次拉特朗公會議關(guān)于發(fā)動第五次十字軍東征的決定，沒有向腓特烈施壓，要求他放棄“兩個西西里”，因為他需要這位皇帝來資助對穆斯林的戰(zhàn)爭。令人難以置信的是，腓特烈在意大利的野心使他把在德意志的皇權(quán)讓給了德意志貴族，從而加劇了該地區(qū)的領(lǐng)土分裂和沖突。同時，教皇派和帝國派之間持續(xù)不斷的競爭，分別被稱為歸爾甫派（Guelphs）和吉伯林派（Ghibellines），使教皇國分裂了幾個世紀。

The struggle resurfaced in the 13th century when Frederick II, having gained a toehold in Italy through his inheritance of Sicily and Naples, set his sights on ruling the entire peninsula. Pope Innocent III had promised to crown Frederick II emperor on the condition that he relinquish control of Sicily and Naples and undertake a crusade to recapture Jerusalem. Frederick was crowned emperor by Innocent’s successor, Honorius III (1216–27). Desperate to comply with the Lateran IV order to launch a fifth crusade, Honorius did not pressure Frederick to give up the “Two Sicilies” because he needed the emperor to finance the war against the Muslims. Incredibly, Frederick’s ambitions in Italy were such that he abdicated Imperial power in Germany to the German nobles, thereby fueling territorial fragmentation and conflict in that region. Meanwhile, the ongoing rivalry between the papal and imperial factions, known as the Guelphs and the Ghibellines, respectively, divided the Papal States for centuries.

? ? ? ? ? 公元1254年至1273年的大間歇期，是霍亨斯陶芬在德國的自由放任政策的直接結(jié)果，不可挽回地削弱了皇帝的權(quán)力。帝國頭銜在兩個非德國統(tǒng)治者之間產(chǎn)生了爭議，隨后三個德意志家族，即哈布斯堡家族、盧森堡家族和維特爾斯巴赫家族之間的競爭將以有利于哈布斯堡家族的方式解決。但在空位時代期間，德意志的王公們已經(jīng)鞏固了他們在政治上獨立于皇帝的地位，康拉德四世皇帝在上述1356年的金諭中被迫承認這種獨立?；实蹅冊谥艺\的、帝國任命的主教團和帝國自由城市的支持下，部分地抵消了德意志諸侯的壓力?？坡?、美因茨、特里爾和奧格斯堡，等等，其中一些城市將形成強大的聯(lián)盟，如漢薩聯(lián)盟，該聯(lián)盟成立于12世紀的呂貝克，這是一個由德國城市組成的行會，直到15世紀都還主導(dǎo)著北海和巴爾干海的貿(mào)易。

The Great Interregnum of 1254 to 1273, which transpired as a direct result of the Hohenstaufen’s laissez-faire policies in Germany, irremediably weakened the powers of the emperor. The Imperial title was disputed between two non-German rulers, and subsequently rivalries among three German families, the Habsburgs, the Luxembourgs, and the Wittelsbachs, would be resolved in favor of the Habsburgs. But during the Interregnum the German princes had solidified their political independence from the emperor, an independence that Emperor Conrad IV was forced to recognize in the aforementioned Golden Bull of 1356. The emperors were partially able to counter the weight of the German princes with the support of loyal imperially appointed prince-bishoprics and Imperial free cities: Cologne, Mainz, Trier, and Augsburg, among others. Some of these cities would form powerful alliances, such as the mercantile Hanseatic League, founded in 12th-century Lübeck as a guild of German cities that dominated trade in the North Sea and Balkan Sea until the 15th century.

? ? ? ? ? 為了應(yīng)對在德國的損失，盧森堡和哈布斯堡的皇帝也將注意力轉(zhuǎn)向向東擴展其權(quán)力和影響力。康拉德將他的家族轉(zhuǎn)移到波西米亞，吞并了勃蘭登堡，占領(lǐng)了波蘭的西里西亞，并在布拉格建立宮廷。他的繼任者西吉斯蒙德試圖通過干預(yù)解決教皇的大分裂問題和指揮對波希米亞胡斯派異端的斗爭來重新樹立帝國在教皇面前的威信。在中世紀末期，哈布斯堡王朝主要致力于保衛(wèi)其東部邊界不受奧斯曼土耳其人的侵擾。

To counter their losses in Germany, the Luxembourg and Habsburg emperors also turned their attentions to extending their power and influence eastward. Conrad transferred his family to Bohemia, annexed Brandenburg, captured Polish Silesia, and established his court in Prague. His successor, Sigismund, attempted to reassert Imperial prestige vis-à-vis the papacy in his intervention in resolving the great papal schism and marshaling the fight against the heretical Bohemian Hussites. By the close of the Middle Ages, the Habsburgs were mainly reduced to defending their eastern borders from the encroachment of the Ottoman Turks.

? ? ? ? ? 神圣羅馬帝國也有一些值得注意的高光時刻。虔誠的奧托王朝以查理曼大帝為榜樣，利用傳教士使其領(lǐng)地內(nèi)的被征服民族皈依，并建立主教區(qū)和教區(qū)作為基督教文明的傳播者?；叵肫饋?，腓特烈二世的統(tǒng)治代表了帝國歷史的高潮，他自己的同時代人稱贊他是“世界的奇跡”（Stupor Mundi）。兩西西里王國擁有許多現(xiàn)代國家的特征。腓特烈消除了封建主義，頒布了《梅爾菲憲法》，建立了管理所有臣民的統(tǒng)一法律體系和類似議會的代表大會制度，并促進了名副其實的自由市場經(jīng)濟。他還建立了宏偉的那不勒斯世俗大學(xué)，配備了最好的基督教、猶太教和穆斯林學(xué)者。腓特烈博學(xué)多才，不僅贊助藝術(shù)和科學(xué)，還創(chuàng)作音樂，并撰寫了科學(xué)精確的《捕鳥的藝術(shù)》（用鳥打獵的藝術(shù)，關(guān)于鳥類學(xué)和獵鷹的拉丁文專著）。

There were some notable high points to the Holy Roman Empire. The devout Ottonians followed the example of Charlemagne in using missionaries to convert the conquered peoples within their domains and establishing bishoprics and dioceses as conveyors of Christian civilization. In retrospect, the reign of Frederick II represents the high point in the empire’s history, and his own contemporaries lauded him as the “Wonder of the World” (Stupor Mundi). The Kingdom of the Two Sicilies bore many of the hallmarks of a modern state. Frederick eliminated feudalism and promulgated the Constitutions of Melfi, which established a uniform system of laws governing all subjects and a parliamentlike institution of representative assemblies and promoted a veritable free-market economy. He also built the magnificent secular University of Naples, staffed with the best Christian, Jewish, and Muslim scholars. Learned and polyglot, Frederick not only patronized the arts and sciences but composed music and wrote the scientifically accurate De arte venandi cum avibus (Art of hunting with birds).

《Handbook To Life in The Medieval World》（2008）

By Madeleine Pelner Cosman and Linda Gale Jones?

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