Journal of Environmental Economics and Management 2023年第1期

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——更多動(dòng)態(tài)，請(qǐng)持續(xù)關(guān)注gzh：理想主義的百年孤獨(dú)

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1.Spatial and temporal responses to incentives: An application to wildlife disease management

激勵(lì)的空間和時(shí)間響應(yīng):野生動(dòng)物疾病管理的應(yīng)用

Lusi Xie, Wiktor Adamowicz, Patrick Lloyd-Smith

When participating in recreation individuals decide on where to go (locations) and when to participate (which time periods), and they respond to changes in external factors (e.g., environmental quality changes, provision of incentives). In examining economic decision-making, economists focus mostly on location choices, thus the behavioral and welfare impacts of the incentives associated with time choices are largely unknown. In this paper, we develop and estimate a flexible econometric model that combines spatial and temporal choices. The model is applied to examine individuals’ location and time choices of their recreation trips in response to extended recreation seasons that are proposed to encourage hunting for wildlife disease management. The data are from an online revealed and stated preference survey of recreational hunters in Alberta, Canada. We find that individuals substitute activities spatially and temporally, take more hunting trips, and gain welfare benefits when they can more flexibly choose the time of activities. Our findings show that increases in time flexibility can be used as an incentive to encourage beneficial outcomes.

當(dāng)參與娛樂活動(dòng)時(shí)，個(gè)體決定去哪里(地點(diǎn))和何時(shí)參與(時(shí)間段)，他們對(duì)外部因素的變化(如環(huán)境質(zhì)量變化、激勵(lì)措施的提供)做出反應(yīng)。在考察經(jīng)濟(jì)決策時(shí)，經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)家主要關(guān)注的是地點(diǎn)選擇，因此，與時(shí)間選擇相關(guān)的激勵(lì)對(duì)行為和福利的影響在很大程度上是未知的。在本文中，我們開發(fā)和估計(jì)了一個(gè)靈活的計(jì)量經(jīng)濟(jì)模型，該模型結(jié)合了空間和時(shí)間選擇。該模型被應(yīng)用于考察個(gè)體在延長(zhǎng)的休閑季節(jié)中休閑旅行的地點(diǎn)和時(shí)間選擇，以促進(jìn)野生動(dòng)物疾病管理。這些數(shù)據(jù)來自加拿大阿爾伯塔省一項(xiàng)在線披露和陳述的休閑獵人偏好調(diào)查。研究發(fā)現(xiàn)，當(dāng)個(gè)體能夠更靈活地選擇活動(dòng)時(shí)間時(shí)，個(gè)體會(huì)在空間和時(shí)間上替代活動(dòng)，增加狩獵次數(shù)，并獲得更多的福利收益。我們的研究結(jié)果表明，增加時(shí)間靈活性可以作為鼓勵(lì)產(chǎn)生有益結(jié)果的激勵(lì)措施。

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2.Do non-damaging earthquakes shake mortgage lenders' risk perception?

非破壞性地震會(huì)動(dòng)搖抵押貸款機(jī)構(gòu)的風(fēng)險(xiǎn)認(rèn)知嗎?

Minhong Xu, Yilan Xu

This study examines how banks respond to earthquakes that convey seismic risk salience but do not cause damage, i.e., noticeable non-damaging earthquakes (NNDEs). Using evidence from California, we find loans more likely to be denied or sold after increased NNDEs. Banks with fewer assets, more diversified branching markets, or stronger sales capability relied more on securitization to transfer the perceived seismic risk. We show evidence that banks likely learned about the NNDEs through personal experience and local news. The effects of NNDEs persisted up to three years. Meanwhile, the NNDEs only caused moderate and temporary collateral devaluation but did not increase the observable default risk. Thus, banks' responses most likely resulted from the increased risk salience of future damaging earthquakes during the mortgage term. Our findings call for reevaluations of the heuristics in banks' risk-perception updating and have implications for designing more efficient disaster risk-sharing mechanisms in the financial market.

本文研究了銀行如何應(yīng)對(duì)具有顯著地震風(fēng)險(xiǎn)但不造成損失的地震，即明顯的非破壞性地震。根據(jù)加州的證據(jù)，我們發(fā)現(xiàn)，在NNDEs增加后，貸款更有可能被拒絕或出售。資產(chǎn)更少、分支市場(chǎng)更多樣化或銷售能力更強(qiáng)的銀行更多地依賴證券化來轉(zhuǎn)移感知到的地震風(fēng)險(xiǎn)。我們展示的證據(jù)表明，銀行可能是通過個(gè)人經(jīng)驗(yàn)和當(dāng)?shù)匦侣劻私釴NDEs的。NNDEs的影響持續(xù)了三年之久。同時(shí)，NNDEs只造成了適度和暫時(shí)的抵押品貶值，但沒有增加可觀察到的違約風(fēng)險(xiǎn)。因此，銀行的反應(yīng)很可能是由于在抵押貸款期限內(nèi)未來破壞性地震的風(fēng)險(xiǎn)顯著性增加。我們的研究結(jié)果要求對(duì)銀行風(fēng)險(xiǎn)感知更新的啟發(fā)式進(jìn)行重新評(píng)估，并對(duì)在金融市場(chǎng)中設(shè)計(jì)更有效的災(zāi)難風(fēng)險(xiǎn)分擔(dān)機(jī)制具有啟示意義。

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3.The mortality impact of fine particulate matter in China: Evidence from trade shocks

細(xì)顆粒物在中國(guó)的死亡率影響:來自貿(mào)易沖擊的證據(jù)

Yazhen Gong, Shanjun Li, Nicholas J. Sanders, Guang Shi

We use county-level panel data to estimate the long-run effect of fine particulate matter (PM2.5) pollution on mortality in China. Our causal inference relies on changes in local pollution via wind transport and demand shocks of Chinese products from export destinations amid the global economic crisis during the late 2000s. We find an economically and statistically significant impact of long-term exposure to PM2.5 on cardiovascular and respiratory mortality, and the effect is the largest for those 65 years and older. Using the substantial variation in pollution levels both across time and space in China, we provide evidence of a concave dose-response function, with diminishing marginal mortality impacts of pollution at levels beyond those in developed nations.

本文利用縣域面板數(shù)據(jù)估計(jì)了細(xì)顆粒物(PM2.5)污染對(duì)中國(guó)人口死亡率的長(zhǎng)期影響。我們的因果推斷依賴于2000年代末全球經(jīng)濟(jì)危機(jī)期間風(fēng)力運(yùn)輸導(dǎo)致的當(dāng)?shù)匚廴咀兓椭袊?guó)產(chǎn)品出口目的地的需求沖擊。我們發(fā)現(xiàn)，長(zhǎng)期暴露在PM2.5中對(duì)心血管和唿吸系統(tǒng)死亡率有經(jīng)濟(jì)和統(tǒng)計(jì)上的顯著影響，對(duì)65歲及以上的人影響最大。利用中國(guó)污染水平在時(shí)間和空間上的顯著變化，我們提供了一個(gè)凹劑量-反應(yīng)函數(shù)的證據(jù)，表明污染水平的邊際死亡率影響在發(fā)達(dá)國(guó)家以外的水平上呈遞減趨勢(shì)。

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4.Policy evaluation of waste pricing programs using heterogeneous causal effect estimation

利用異質(zhì)因果效應(yīng)估計(jì)進(jìn)行廢物定價(jià)方案的政策評(píng)估

Marica Valente

Using machine learning methods in a quasi-experimental setting, I study the heterogeneous effects of introducing waste prices – unit prices on household unsorted waste disposal – on waste demands and municipal costs. Using a unique panel of Italian municipalities with large variation in prices and observables, I show that waste demands are nonlinear. I find evidence of constant elasticities at low prices, and increasing elasticities at high prices driven by income effects and waste habits before policy. The policy reduces waste management costs in all municipalities after three years of adoption, when prices cause significant reductions in total waste.

在準(zhǔn)實(shí)驗(yàn)環(huán)境下，本文利用機(jī)器學(xué)習(xí)方法研究了引入垃圾價(jià)格(家庭未分類垃圾處理的單位價(jià)格)對(duì)垃圾需求和城市成本的異質(zhì)性影響。通過對(duì)價(jià)格和可觀測(cè)值差異較大的意大利城市的一個(gè)獨(dú)特面板，我表明，廢物需求是非線性的。我發(fā)現(xiàn)了在低價(jià)格時(shí)彈性不變，在高價(jià)格時(shí)彈性增加的證據(jù)，這是由收入效應(yīng)和政策前的浪費(fèi)習(xí)慣驅(qū)動(dòng)的。該政策在實(shí)施三年后降低了所有城市的廢物管理成本，當(dāng)價(jià)格導(dǎo)致廢物總量大幅減少時(shí)。

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5.International climate aid and trade

國(guó)際氣候援助和貿(mào)易

Basak Bayramoglu, Jean-Fran?ois Jacques, Clément Nedoncelle, Lucille Neumann-Noel

Foreign aid allocation by donor countries to developing economies is known to be motivated by the donor country’s bilateral trade interests. Does this apply also to bilateral climate aid? In this paper, we combine theoretical and empirical analyses to investigate how bilateral trade affects donor countries’ allocations of bilateral climate aid. Our theoretical analysis develops a simple model to support our hypothesis that bilateral trade has a positive impact on climate aid transfers. The model highlights the terms-of-trade and positive income effects of climate aid, and predicts a positive relationship between donor countries’ exports to and imports from recipient countries and their climate aid transfers. The empirical analysis is based on bilateral climate aid data for 2002 to 2017. We employ fixed effects and instrumental variable-2 stage least square estimations (IV-2SLS) with a shift-share instrument to overcome the endogeneity of trade. Our empirical results show that donors’ exports have a significant, robust, positive effect on climate aid transfers.

眾所周知，援助國(guó)對(duì)發(fā)展中經(jīng)濟(jì)體的對(duì)外援助分配是受援助國(guó)雙邊貿(mào)易利益驅(qū)動(dòng)的。這也適用于雙邊氣候援助嗎?本文將理論分析與實(shí)證分析相結(jié)合，考察了雙邊貿(mào)易對(duì)援助國(guó)雙邊氣候援助分配的影響。我們的理論分析開發(fā)了一個(gè)簡(jiǎn)單的模型來支持我們的假設(shè)，即雙邊貿(mào)易對(duì)氣候援助轉(zhuǎn)移具有積極影響。該模型強(qiáng)調(diào)了氣候援助的貿(mào)易條件和積極收入效應(yīng)，并預(yù)測(cè)了援助國(guó)對(duì)受援國(guó)的出口和進(jìn)口與其氣候援助轉(zhuǎn)移之間的積極關(guān)系。實(shí)證分析基于2002—2017年的雙邊氣候援助數(shù)據(jù)。本文采用固定效應(yīng)和工具變量二階段最小二乘估計(jì)(IV-2SLS)以及偏離-份額工具來克服貿(mào)易的內(nèi)生性問題。我們的實(shí)證結(jié)果表明，援助國(guó)的出口對(duì)氣候援助轉(zhuǎn)移具有顯著的、強(qiáng)勁的積極影響。

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6.Quantifying COVID-19’s silver lining: Avoided deaths from air quality improvements in Bogotá

量化COVID-19的一線希望：Bogotá避免了空氣質(zhì)量改善導(dǎo)致的死亡

Allen Blackman, Jorge A. Bonilla, Laura Villalobos

In cities around the world, COVID-19 lockdowns have significantly improved outdoor air quality. Even if only temporary, these improvements could have longer-lasting effects by making chronic air pollution more salient and boosting political pressure for change. To that end, it is important to develop objective estimates of both the air quality improvements associated with lockdowns and the benefits they generate. We use panel data econometric models to estimate the effect of Bogotá’s 16-month lockdown on PM2.5 and NO2 pollution, epidemiological models to simulate the effect of reductions in these pollutants on long- and short-term mortality, and benefit transfer methods to value the avoided mortality. We find that on average, Bogotá’s lockdown cut PM2.5 pollution by 15% and NO2 pollution by 21%. However, the magnitude of these effects varied considerably over time and across the city's neighborhoods. Equivalent permanent reductions in these pollutants would reduce long-term premature deaths from air pollution by 23% each year, a benefit valued at $1 billion annually. Finally, we estimate that if they occurred ceteris paribus, the temporary reductions in pollutant concentrations in 2020–2021 due to Bogotá’s lockdown would have cut short-term deaths from air pollution by 19%, a benefit valued at $244 million.

在世界各地的城市，COVID-19封鎖顯著改善了室外空氣質(zhì)量。即使只是暫時(shí)的，這些改善也可能產(chǎn)生更持久的影響，因?yàn)檫@將使長(zhǎng)期的空氣污染問題更加突出，并加大要求改革的政治壓力。為此，重要的是要對(duì)封鎖帶來的空氣質(zhì)量改善及其帶來的好處進(jìn)行客觀估計(jì)。我們使用面板數(shù)據(jù)計(jì)量經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)模型來估計(jì)Bogotá 16個(gè)月封鎖對(duì)PM2.5和NO2污染的影響，使用流行病學(xué)模型來模擬這些污染物的減少對(duì)長(zhǎng)期和短期死亡率的影響，并使用利益轉(zhuǎn)移方法來評(píng)估避免的死亡率。我們發(fā)現(xiàn)，Bogotá的封鎖平均減少了15%的PM2.5污染和21%的NO2污染。然而，這些影響的程度隨著時(shí)間的推移和城市社區(qū)的差異很大。這些污染物的等量永久減少將使因空氣污染造成的長(zhǎng)期過早死亡人數(shù)每年減少23%，每年可帶來價(jià)值10億美元的效益。最后，我們估計(jì)，如果它們發(fā)生在其他條件不變的情況下，由于Bogotá的封鎖，2020-2021年污染物濃度的暫時(shí)下降將使空氣污染造成的短期死亡減少19%，價(jià)值2.44億美元。

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7.Tax incentives, environmental regulation and firms’ emission reduction strategies: Evidence from China

稅收優(yōu)惠、環(huán)境規(guī)制與企業(yè)減排策略:來自中國(guó)的證據(jù)

Yu Qi, Jianshun Zhang, Jianwei Chen

Policy interaction is an important way to deal with increasingly complex environmental problems. This paper examines the investment-related tax cuts and the policy interaction with environmental regulation on firms' emission reduction strategies. Taking China's value-added tax (VAT) reform as a quasi-natural experiment and considering the interaction with the emission reduction target policy, our difference-in-differences estimation shows that: the average effect of the VAT reform reduces firms' sulfur dioxide (SO2) emission intensity by 16.6%, due to the adoption of emissions reduction strategies in the production processes; the interaction effect between the VAT reform and environmental regulation incentivizes firms to additionally reduce SO2 emission intensity, due to the adoption of both production processes and end-of-pipe reduction strategies. Our findings are more evident for firms with tight financial constraints. Overall, this paper reveals the micro-mechanisms of how the tax policies incentivize firms to choose emission reduction strategies and highlights the importance of the interaction effects between environmental and non-environmental policies, thus providing implications for the policy mix of environmental regulation and tax-cut incentives to promote pollution reduction and improve business performance.

政策互動(dòng)是應(yīng)對(duì)日益復(fù)雜的環(huán)境問題的重要途徑。本文研究了投資相關(guān)減稅政策以及與環(huán)境規(guī)制的政策互動(dòng)對(duì)企業(yè)減排戰(zhàn)略的影響。將增值稅轉(zhuǎn)型作為一個(gè)準(zhǔn)自然實(shí)驗(yàn)，并考慮到與減排目標(biāo)政策的交互作用，我們的雙重差分估計(jì)結(jié)果表明:增值稅轉(zhuǎn)型平均降低了企業(yè)16.6%的二氧化硫排放強(qiáng)度，這主要是由于企業(yè)在生產(chǎn)過程中采取了減排策略;增值稅轉(zhuǎn)型與環(huán)境規(guī)制的交互作用激勵(lì)企業(yè)通過同時(shí)采用生產(chǎn)流程和減少管道末端排放策略來額外降低SO2排放強(qiáng)度。我們的發(fā)現(xiàn)在融資約束較緊的企業(yè)中更為明顯?？傮w而言，本文揭示了稅收政策激勵(lì)企業(yè)選擇減排戰(zhàn)略的微觀機(jī)制，凸顯了環(huán)境政策與非環(huán)境政策交互效應(yīng)的重要性，為環(huán)境規(guī)制與減稅激勵(lì)的政策組合促進(jìn)污染減排和企業(yè)績(jī)效提升提供了啟示。

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8.First lead, now no bed? The unintended impacts of lead abatement laws on eviction

《鉛減排法》對(duì)驅(qū)逐的意外影響

Luke Fesko

Lead paint in old houses is the leading cause of lead poisoning in children under 6 today. To combat this problem, several states have passed lead abatement laws, forcing landlords to remove lead in the homes they rent if tenants have children under the age of 6. However, these laws have unintended consequences, causing landlords to evict tenants rather than abate lead. I use a difference-in-differences approach while employing various model specifications with various fixed effects and sets of controls to examine the impact of Ohio’s 2003 lead abatement law on eviction rates. Using newly collected data from the Eviction Lab at Princeton University, I find that the passage of Ohio’s lead abatement law sharply increased targeted evictions. Due to the law’s passage, the average census district in Ohio faced an increased eviction rate of roughly 0.457 points, corresponding to an additional 13.93 evictions a year. These impacts are highly statistically significant, sizeable, and economically meaningful, indicating that policy makers should incorporate distributional consequences when designing future lead abatement laws in order to avoid unintended consequences and ensure equitable outcomes.

如今，老房子里的含鉛涂料是導(dǎo)致6歲以下兒童鉛中毒的主要原因。為了解決這個(gè)問題，幾個(gè)州已經(jīng)通過了減少鉛含量的法律，強(qiáng)制房東如果租客有6歲以下的孩子，就必須在他們出租的房子里去除鉛。然而，這些法律產(chǎn)生了意想不到的后果，導(dǎo)致房東驅(qū)逐租戶，而不是減少鉛。我使用了一種差異中的差異方法，同時(shí)采用了各種模型規(guī)范，具有各種固定效應(yīng)和控制集，以檢查俄亥俄州2003年的鉛減排法對(duì)驅(qū)逐率的影響。利用普林斯頓大學(xué)(Princeton University)驅(qū)逐實(shí)驗(yàn)室(Eviction Lab)最新收集的數(shù)據(jù)，我發(fā)現(xiàn)俄亥俄州減少鉛排放法的通過大幅增加了有針對(duì)性的驅(qū)逐。由于該法律的通過，俄亥俄州人口普查區(qū)的平均驅(qū)逐率增加了大約0.457個(gè)點(diǎn)，相當(dāng)于每年增加13.93個(gè)驅(qū)逐事件。這些影響在統(tǒng)計(jì)上具有高度顯著性、可觀性和經(jīng)濟(jì)意義，表明決策者在設(shè)計(jì)未來的鉛減排法律時(shí)應(yīng)考慮分配后果，以避免意外后果并確保公平的結(jié)果。

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9.Cross-border environmental regulation and firm labor demand

跨境環(huán)境監(jiān)管與企業(yè)勞動(dòng)力需求

Pavel Chakraborty, Anindya S. Chakrabarti, Chirantan Chatterjee

In 1994, due to environmental concerns, Germany banned a chemical called ‘Azo-dyes’, a primary input for the leather and textiles firms in India (a key exporter). Exploiting this as a quasi-natural experiment, we examine the effects of this cross-border regulatory change on labor compensation, particularly managerial, for both Indian upstream (dye-producing) and downstream (leather and textile) firms. We find that the regulation increased compensation of managers by 1.3%–18% in dye-producing firms compared to other chemical firms. This is due to the combination of changes such as investing in R&D, product churning, import of high-quality intermediates, due to the ban, which led to this change in within-firm labor composition. This increase in overall compensation is driven only by fixed component (wages), consistent with the effects of a long-run shock. We find no such effects for downstream firms. We believe, our study is one of the first to show that just like tariff, non-tariff barriers (NTBs) can also significantly affect within-firm labor composition.

1994年，出于對(duì)環(huán)境的考慮，德國(guó)禁止了一種名為“偶氮染料”的化學(xué)物質(zhì)，這種化學(xué)物質(zhì)是印度(主要出口國(guó))皮革和紡織品公司的主要原料。利用這一準(zhǔn)自然實(shí)驗(yàn)，我們考察了這種跨境監(jiān)管變化對(duì)印度上游(染料生產(chǎn))和下游(皮革和紡織)企業(yè)的勞動(dòng)補(bǔ)償，特別是管理方面的影響。我們發(fā)現(xiàn)，與其他化工企業(yè)相比，該法規(guī)使染料生產(chǎn)企業(yè)的經(jīng)理薪酬提高了1.3%-18%。這是由于禁令導(dǎo)致的一系列變化，如研發(fā)投資、產(chǎn)品生產(chǎn)、高質(zhì)量中間體進(jìn)口等，導(dǎo)致了企業(yè)內(nèi)部勞動(dòng)力構(gòu)成的變化。整體薪酬的增長(zhǎng)僅由固定成分(工資)推動(dòng)，與長(zhǎng)期沖擊的影響一致。我們發(fā)現(xiàn)下游企業(yè)沒有這種影響。我們相信，我們的研究是第一個(gè)表明與關(guān)稅一樣，非關(guān)稅壁壘(NTBs)也可以顯著影響企業(yè)內(nèi)部勞動(dòng)力構(gòu)成的研究之一。

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10.Is environmental regulation the answer to pollution problems in urbanizing economies?

環(huán)境監(jiān)管是城市化經(jīng)濟(jì)體中污染問題的答案嗎?

JunJie Wu, Kathleen Segerson, Chunhua Wang

This paper seeks to better understand the persistent environmental problems in urbanizing economies. We examine the effectiveness of environmental policy in an economy with agglomeration economies and endogenous firm relocation and entry/exit. We show that, although environmental regulation is effective in the short run, in the presence of agglomeration economies, spatial relocation of firms in response to environmental regulation can undermine the effectiveness of regulations, rendering them less effective or even ineffective. In fact, we show that regulation might even be counter-productive, i.e., exacerbate environmental problems, at certain stages of development. We present initial empirical evidence in the context of water pollution in China that demonstrates the importance of agglomeration economies in determining the impacts of environmental regulation.

本文旨在更好地理解城市化經(jīng)濟(jì)中持續(xù)存在的環(huán)境問題。我們考察了具有集聚經(jīng)濟(jì)和內(nèi)生企業(yè)遷移和進(jìn)入/退出的經(jīng)濟(jì)體中環(huán)境政策的有效性。我們的研究表明，盡管環(huán)境監(jiān)管在短期內(nèi)是有效的，但在集聚經(jīng)濟(jì)存在的情況下，企業(yè)為應(yīng)對(duì)環(huán)境監(jiān)管而進(jìn)行的空間轉(zhuǎn)移可能會(huì)破壞監(jiān)管的有效性，使其效率降低甚至無效。事實(shí)上，我們的研究表明，在發(fā)展的某些階段，監(jiān)管甚至可能適得其反，即加劇環(huán)境問題。我們?cè)谥袊?guó)水污染的背景下提出了初步的經(jīng)驗(yàn)證據(jù)，證明了集聚經(jīng)濟(jì)在確定環(huán)境監(jiān)管影響方面的重要性。

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11.Optimal pricing for carbon dioxide removal under inter-regional leakage

區(qū)域間滲漏下二氧化碳去除的最優(yōu)定價(jià)

Max Franks, Matthias Kalkuhl, Kai Lessmann

Carbon dioxide removal (CDR) moves atmospheric carbon to geological or land-based sinks. In a first-best setting, the optimal use of CDR is achieved by a removal subsidy that equals the optimal carbon tax and marginal damages. We derive second-best policy rules for CDR subsidies and carbon taxes when no global carbon price exists but a national government implements a unilateral climate policy. We find that the optimal carbon tax differs from an optimal CDR subsidy because of carbon leakage and a balance of resource trade effect. First, the optimal removal subsidy tends to be larger than the carbon tax because of lower supply-side leakage on fossil resource markets. Second, net carbon exporters exacerbate this wedge to increase producer surplus of their carbon resource producers, implying even larger removal subsidies. Third, net carbon importers may set their removal subsidy even below their carbon tax when marginal environmental damages are small, to appropriate producer surplus from carbon exporters.

二氧化碳去除(CDR)將大氣中的碳轉(zhuǎn)移到地質(zhì)或陸地上的碳匯。在最優(yōu)環(huán)境下，CDR的最佳使用是通過等同于最優(yōu)碳稅和邊際損害的移除補(bǔ)貼來實(shí)現(xiàn)的。當(dāng)不存在全球碳價(jià)格，而是某個(gè)國(guó)家政府實(shí)施單邊氣候政策時(shí)，我們得出了CDR補(bǔ)貼和碳稅的次優(yōu)政策規(guī)則。我們發(fā)現(xiàn)最優(yōu)碳稅不同于最優(yōu)CDR補(bǔ)貼，因?yàn)樘夹孤┖推胶獾馁Y源交易效應(yīng)。首先，由于化石資源市場(chǎng)的供給側(cè)泄漏較低，最佳去除補(bǔ)貼往往大于碳稅。其次，凈碳出口國(guó)加劇了這一楔形，增加了其碳資源生產(chǎn)國(guó)的生產(chǎn)者剩余，這意味著更大的減排補(bǔ)貼。第三，當(dāng)邊際環(huán)境損害很小時(shí)，凈碳進(jìn)口國(guó)可能會(huì)將其排放補(bǔ)貼設(shè)定在甚至低于碳稅的水平，以從碳出口國(guó)那里獲得適當(dāng)?shù)纳a(chǎn)者剩余。

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12.National expenditures on local amenities

國(guó)家在地方設(shè)施上的支出

David S. Bieri, Nicolai V. Kuminoff, Jaren C. Pope

We develop a framework for estimating Americans’ implicit expenditures on spatially varying nonmarket amenities. We focus on location-specific factors that affect the quality of life but are not formally traded. Examples include climate, geography, pollution, local public goods, and transportation infrastructure. Households pay for residential access to these amenities indirectly, through housing prices, wages and property taxes. We construct a database of 75 amenities, match it to 5 million households’ location choices, and use hedonic methods to estimate their total amenity expenditures. Our benchmark estimate for the year 2000 is $562 billion--equivalent to 8% of Americans’ personal consumption expenditures.

我們開發(fā)了一個(gè)框架，用于估計(jì)美國(guó)人在空間變化的非市場(chǎng)設(shè)施上的隱性支出。我們專注于影響生活質(zhì)量的特定地點(diǎn)因素，但沒有正式交易。例如氣候、地理、污染、當(dāng)?shù)毓伯a(chǎn)品和交通基礎(chǔ)設(shè)施。家庭通過房?jī)r(jià)、工資和財(cái)產(chǎn)稅等間接方式為享受這些便利設(shè)施而付費(fèi)。我們構(gòu)建了一個(gè)包含75個(gè)便利設(shè)施的數(shù)據(jù)庫(kù)，將其與500萬(wàn)個(gè)家庭的地點(diǎn)選擇相匹配，并使用享樂學(xué)方法估算他們的總便利設(shè)施支出。我們對(duì)2000年的基準(zhǔn)估計(jì)是5620億美元——相當(dāng)于美國(guó)人個(gè)人消費(fèi)支出的8%。

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