群落之間的相互作用∶

1. Interspecific competition 種間斗爭(zhēng)

（Intraspecific 種內(nèi)）

Two or more species compete for the same limited resources.?

Result: extinction, resources partitioning, and character displacement

2. Predation 捕食

One organism (predator) feeds on another organism (prey)

捕食方法∶ pursuit and ambush; mimicry;?camouflage; chemical warfare

保護(hù)方法∶?Aposematic coloration 警戒色; Batesian mimicry 警戒擬態(tài); Mullerian mimicry

3. Symbiotic relationship 共生

Mutualism 互利共生 → both species benefit

Commensalism 偏利共生→one species benefits and the other is neither helped nor hurt

Parasitism 寄生→ one species is harmed and the other benefits

重要的生物

Keystone species?基石物種?the biotic balance is maintained by a single species

Indicator species 指示物種?species that are used as a standard to evaluate the health of an?ecosystem?

Indigenous species?本地物種?species that originate and live or occur naturally in an area or environment

Biomes?生物群系

Ecotones 交錯(cuò)群落: the transitional area where two ecosystems meet

Ecozones/Ecoregions: smaller regions within ecosystems that share similar physical features

Edge effect: some organisms can only live in ecotones (交錯(cuò)群落), which can be destroyed by habitat fragmentation

Law of Tolerance: the degree to which living organisms?are capable of tolerating changes in the environment?

Law of the Minimum?最小因子法則: living organisms will continue to?live, consuming available materials until the supply of these materials is exhausted.

Forest?森林∶

特點(diǎn)∶?high productivity and biodiversity

Tropical rain forest∶?低緯度地區(qū)（巴西、中美洲、印尼、中非），土壤貧瘠←leaching

Temperate rain forest∶?中緯度地區(qū)（美國(guó)東部，歐洲大部分），土壤肥沃

Taigas（boreal forest）北方針葉林∶北極苔原以南（北美、亞洲、歐洲的北部），植物多樣性低，土壤貧瘠且顯酸性

Grassland?草原∶

特點(diǎn)∶regulated by seasonal drought， occasional fires，and the grazing of herbivores

Tropical grassland∶東非、南美洲和澳大利亞的部分地區(qū)，干濕季交替，植物根系發(fā)達(dá)

Temperate grassland∶美國(guó)和加拿大的中西部和西部、南非和俄羅斯的部分地區(qū)，生產(chǎn)力高，大風(fēng)和蒸發(fā)較強(qiáng)使得夏秋季容易著火

Cold grassland∶北極苔原以南（北美、亞洲、歐洲的北部），動(dòng)物的適應(yīng)能力強(qiáng)

Desert?沙漠∶

特點(diǎn)∶ intense heat and evaporation

Tropical desert∶大多數(shù)的北非、中東的部分地區(qū)，植被稀少

Temperate desert∶美國(guó)西南部，存在一些抗干旱的植被

Cold desert∶ 美國(guó)大盆地、中國(guó)北部的戈壁、蒙古南部，植被稀少

Chaparral（temperate shrubland）灌木叢∶

南加州的沿海地區(qū)、地中海的部分地區(qū)、智利中部

Energy Flow 生態(tài)系統(tǒng)中的能量流動(dòng)

Producer （autotroph）生產(chǎn)者∶

At the first trophic level 第一營(yíng)養(yǎng)級(jí)

Photosynthesis 光合作用∶Solar energy+6H2O+6CO2→ C6H12O6+6O2

Chemosynthesis 化能合成作用∶Heat +3H2S+6H2O+6CO2→C6H12O6+3H2SO4

Consumer （heterotroph）消費(fèi)者∶

Aerobic respiration 有氧呼吸∶C6H12O6+6O2→6H2O+6CO2+energy?

Primary consumer: herbivores

Secondary & tertiary consumer: carnivores and omnivores （雜食公務(wù)）

Detritivores 食腐質(zhì)者∶scavengers （larger organisms）

Decomposers 分解者∶ bacteria and fungi; support the growth and development of primary producers

Ethanol fermentation 酒精發(fā)酵∶C6H12O6→2C2H5OH+2CO2

食物鏈和食物網(wǎng)

Food chain 食物鏈

Food web 食物網(wǎng)：越復(fù)雜，群落的穩(wěn)定性越強(qiáng)

Gross primary productivity: the rate at which primary producers converts solar energy into chemical energy through photosynthesis

Net primary productivity= gross primary productivity -aerobic respiration(by plants)

NPP=GPP-R

Energy pyramid 能量金字塔∶

營(yíng)養(yǎng)級(jí)之間的能量傳遞效率很低，大約為10%

Bioaccumulation: the accumulation of a substance in the tissues of a living organism

Biomagnification: the increasing concentration of toxin?molecules at successively higher trophic levels in a food chain

二者提及的物質(zhì)大都為毒素或重金屬等有害物質(zhì)。

DIVERSITY

自然選擇的影響因素∶

Geologic events: tectonic activity and movement of continents; earthquakes and volcanos Climate events: periods of warming and cooling

Speciation 新物種的形成∶

Geographic isolation 地理隔離 →Reproduction isolation 生殖隔離

生物的進(jìn)化

Divergent evolution: ancestral species → new species?

Convergent evolution: unrelated species → similar adaptations?

Parallel evolution: common ancestor → related species

Coevolution: reciprocal evolutionary set of adaptations of interacting species?

Adaptive radiation: each newly emerging form specializes to fill an ecological niche

Genetic drift 遺傳漂移∶

The accumulation of changes in the frequency of alleles (versions of a gene) over time due to sampling errors—changes that occur as a result of random chance 由于隨機(jī)交配導(dǎo)致的等位基因頻率變化。

Extinction 滅絕∶

Biological extinction: the true extermination of a species

Ecological extinction: organisms are so few that this species can no longer perform their ecological function?

Commercial or economic extinction: organisms are so?few that the effort needed to locate and harvest them is not worth the expense

MATTER CYCLE

碳循環(huán)

Process:

Photosynthesis and Respiration Exchange, Sedimentation, and Burial Extraction and Combustion

Importance:

1. Critical for: nucleic acids, carbohydrates, proteins, lipids?

2. Largest reservoir: oceanic sediments

3. Atmosphere: acts as a natural thermostat for earth's surface temperature

Human Impacts:?

Combustion of fossil fuels;?

Tree harvesting/Clear-cutting

氮循環(huán)

Nitrogen cycle is the limiting factor for primary producers.

Process:

Nitrogen fixation: N2→>NH4+&NH3?

Nitrification: NH4+&NH3→NO2- → NO3-

Assimilation: producers incorporate elements into their tissues

Mineralization: organic matters → inorganic compounds (by decomposers)

Ammonification: organic nitrogen →NH4+ & NH3(by decomposers)

Denitrification:NO3-→N2O→N2

Importance:

1. Critical for: proteins, nucleic acids?

2. Largest reservoir: the atmosphere

Human Impacts:

Excess nitrates, causing leaching;?

Burning of fossil fuels;?

Using inorganic fertilizers

磷循環(huán)

Process:

Assimilation and Mineralization

Sedimentation, Geologic Uplift, and Weathering

Importance:

1. Critical for: DNA, ATP, the bonds and teeth of vertebrates?

2. Largest reservoir: oceanic sediments and terrestrial rock layers

Human Impacts:

Eutrophication 富營(yíng)養(yǎng)化， causing algal boom and then hypoxic water

硫循環(huán)

Importance:

1. Critical for: proteins, vitamins?

2. Largest reservoir: oceanic sediments

Human Impacts:

Acid deposition(SO2 → H2SO4)

水循環(huán)

Process: Precipitation Transpiration Evaporation

Importance:

1. Critical for: life

2. Largest reservoir: surface water

Human Impacts:

Unsustainable withdrawal of water?

Removal of wetlands and deforestation?

Urbanization

影響氣候的因素

Albedo 反照率∶冰雪有較高的反照率，海水的反照率較低

Greenhouse effect?

Carbon Cycle

Landmass distribution 大陸分布

Precession 旋進(jìn)∶地球繞地軸轉(zhuǎn)動(dòng)影響氣候

Volcanos and plate tectonics

生態(tài)演替

Primary succession 原生演替∶之前沒(méi)有土壤存在，后來(lái)演變?yōu)橛猩锏牡胤?/p>

Secondary succession 次生演替∶之前有土壤存在，被毀掉后還有些殘留，后來(lái)演變

Pioneer species: species that in the first states or either type of succession?

Climax community: the final stage of succession