上一時(shí)代：

The Kamakura Period or Kamakura Jidai (1185-1333 CE) of medieval Japan began when Minamoto no Yoritomo (1147-1199 CE) defeated the Taira clan at the Battle of Dannoura in 1185 CE. The period is named after Kamakura, a coastal town 48 kilometres (30 miles) southwest of Tokyo which was used as the Minamoto clan's base. Yoritomo would establish himself as shogun or military dictator of Japan from 1192 CE, thus offering the first alternative to the power of the emperor and imperial court. The Kamakura period saw lasting developments in government, agriculture, and religion and managed to withstand the Mongol invasions of the late 13th century CE. The period came to an end with the fall of the Kamakura Shogunate in 1333 CE when a new clan took over as shoguns of Japan: the Ashikaga.

? ? ? ? ? 鐮倉時(shí)代（公元1185-1333年）始于源賴朝（公元1147-1199年）在公元1185年壇之浦之戰(zhàn)中擊敗平氏家族。這一時(shí)期以東京西南48公里（30英里）的沿海城鎮(zhèn)鐮倉命名，鐮倉是源氏家族的基地。從公元1192年起，源賴朝成為日本的幕府將軍（或軍事獨(dú)裁者），從而為天皇和朝廷的權(quán)力平衡提供了第一個(gè)替代方案。鐮倉時(shí)期在政府、農(nóng)業(yè)和宗教方面取得了持久的發(fā)展，并成功抵御了公元13世紀(jì)末蒙古人的入侵。這一時(shí)期隨著公元1333年鐮倉幕府的倒臺而結(jié)束，當(dāng)時(shí)一個(gè)新的氏族接管了日本的幕府：足利尊氏（室町幕府，也稱足利幕府）。

源賴朝與平氏家族

During the preceding Heian period (794-1185 CE), the court of the Japanese emperor was still important and still considered divine but it had become sidelined by powerful bureaucrats who all came from one family: the Fujiwara clan. Towards the end of the period, another two important groups evolved in Japanese politics, the Minamoto (aka Genji) and Taira (aka Heike) clans whose members were often minor relations of the emperors. With their own private armies of samurai, both clans became important instruments in the hands of rival members of the Fujiwara clan's internal power struggle which broke out in the 1156 CE Hogen Disturbance and the 1160 CE Heiji Disturbance. The Taira, led by Taira no Kiyomori, eventually swept away all rivals and dominated the Japanese government for two decades. However, in the Genpei War (1180-1185), the Minamoto returned victorious, and at the war's finale, the Battle of Dannoura, the Taira leader, Tomamori, and the young emperor Antoku committed suicide. The Minamoto clan leader Minamoto no Yoritomo was left the most powerful military leader in Japan.

? ? ? ? ? 在之前的平安時(shí)代（公元794-1185年），日本天皇的宮廷很重要，仍然被認(rèn)為是神圣的，但它已經(jīng)被強(qiáng)大的官僚所排擠，他們都來自一個(gè)家族：藤原氏。在這一時(shí)期的末期，日本政治中又出現(xiàn)了兩個(gè)重要的團(tuán)體，即源氏（又稱aka Genji）和平氏（又稱aka Heike），他們的成員往往是天皇的次要親屬。這兩個(gè)氏族擁有自己的私人武士軍隊(duì)，成為藤原氏族內(nèi)部權(quán)力斗爭中的重要工具，在公元1156年保元之亂和公元1160年平治之亂中發(fā)揮了重要作用。由平清盛領(lǐng)導(dǎo)的平氏家族最終掃除了所有的對手，并在二十年內(nèi)主宰了日本政府。然而，在源平合戰(zhàn)（1180-1185年）中，源氏勝利歸來，在戰(zhàn)爭的壓軸戲壇之浦之戰(zhàn)中，平氏領(lǐng)袖之一平知盛和年幼的安德天皇自殺了。源氏族領(lǐng)袖源賴朝成為日本最強(qiáng)大的軍事領(lǐng)袖。

Minamoto no Yoritomo was the son of Minamoto no Yoshitomo (1123-1160 CE) and the grandson of Minamoto no Tameyoshi (1096-1156 CE), both influential Minamoto clan members with the latter being the head of the clan in the mid-12th century CE. Having defeated all rivals and dispatched his younger brother Minamoto no Noriyori and other key members of his own family, Yoritomo stood alone at the head of the Minamoto clan.

? ? ? ? ? 源賴朝是源義朝（公元1123-1160年）的兒子和源為義（公元1096-1156年）的孫子，兩人都是有影響力的源氏家族成員，后者在公元12世紀(jì)中期是該家族的首領(lǐng)。在擊敗了所有的對手，并遣散了他的弟弟源范賴和他自己家族的其他主要成員之后，源賴朝獨(dú)自站在了源氏家族的首領(lǐng)位置上。

鐮倉幕府

Minamoto no Yoritomo made himself the first shogun, in effect military dictator, of Japan, a position he would hold from 1192 CE to 1199 CE. He would, therefore, be the first shogun of the Kamakura Shogunate (1192-1333 CE). The position of shogun was the first to offer an alternative system of government to that of the Japanese imperial court. The title of shogun or 'military protector' had been used before (seii tai shogun) but had only been a temporary title for military commanders on campaign against the Ezo/Emishi (Ainu) in the north of Japan. Yoritomo was able to hold the title with its new wider meaning thanks to his agreement with the young Emperor Go-Toba (r. 1183-1198 CE) who bestowed it in return for Yoritomo's military protection. Technically, the emperor was above the shogun, but in practice, it was the reverse as whoever had control of the army also controlled the state. The emperors did maintain a ceremonial function, and their endorsement was still sought by shoguns to give a veneer of legitimacy to their own rule.

? ? ? ? ? 源賴朝是日本的第一位將軍，實(shí)際上是軍事獨(dú)裁者，他在公元1192年至1199年擔(dān)任這一職務(wù)。因此，他是鐮倉幕府（公元1192-1333年）的第一位將軍。大將軍職位是第一個(gè)為日本朝廷提供另一種政府系統(tǒng)的職位。大將軍或“軍事保護(hù)者”的頭銜以前也曾使用過（seii tai shogun），但只是對日本北部的蝦夷/阿伊努人（Ezo/Emishi）作戰(zhàn)時(shí)的軍事指揮官的一個(gè)臨時(shí)頭銜。源賴朝與年輕的后鳥羽天皇（公元1183-1198年）達(dá)成協(xié)議，得以擁有這個(gè)具有更廣泛意義的頭銜，而天皇授予這個(gè)頭銜是為了回報(bào)源賴朝的軍事保護(hù)。從理論上講，天皇的地位高于幕府將軍，但在實(shí)際中，情況恰恰相反，因?yàn)檎l控制了軍隊(duì)，誰就控制了國家。天皇確實(shí)保持著禮法作用，而且幕府將軍仍然尋求他們的認(rèn)可，以便為自己的統(tǒng)治披上一層合法外衣。

After all he had done to establish himself as Japan's supremo, Minamoto no Yoritomo did not have very long to enjoy his position as he died in a riding accident in 1199 CE. He was succeeded by his eldest son Minamoto no Yorie (r. 1202-1203 CE), but only after a power struggle. When Yoritomo died, his wife, Hojo Masako (1157-1225 CE), and her father, Hojo Tokimasa, had decided to rule themselves, and so they created the position of shogunal regent and promoted the interests of the Hojo clan. In this arrangement, much copied throughout the Kamakura period, the regent shogun had the real power and the shogun was a mere puppet. Hojo Masako had retired to a convent when her husband had died, but her reinvolvement in politics earned her the nickname the 'nun shogun.' Ambitious, able, and ruthless, Masako was a formidable politician who let nothing stand in her way, not even her father whom she exiled when the pair fell out.

? ? ? ? ? 在他為確立自己的日本霸主地位所做的一切之后，源賴朝并沒有享受太久，因?yàn)樗诠?199年死于一場騎馬事故。他的長子源賴家（公元1202-1203年）繼承了他的位置，但只是在權(quán)力斗爭之后。當(dāng)源賴朝死后，他的妻子北條政子（公元1157-1225年）和她的父親北條時(shí)政決定自己統(tǒng)治，因此他們設(shè)立了幕府?dāng)z政的職位，并促進(jìn)了北條氏族的利益。在這種安排中，攝政將軍擁有真正的權(quán)力，而幕府將軍只是一個(gè)傀儡，這種安排在整個(gè)鐮倉時(shí)期被大量復(fù)制。北條政子在丈夫去世后退居寺院，但她對政治的重新參與為她贏得了“尼姑將軍”的綽號。北條政子雄心勃勃、能干、冷酷無情，是一個(gè)強(qiáng)大的政治家，她不會讓任何東西擋住她的去路，甚至是她的父親，當(dāng)他們倆鬧翻時(shí)，她把父親流放了。

Minamoto no Sanetomo was the second son of Yoritomo and brother of Yorie, who became shogun in 1203 CE with his mother Hojo Masako and Hojo Tokimasa acting as his regents. Sanetomo's 16-year reign came to a brutal end with his assassination in 1219 CE at the hands of his own nephew Kugyo, the son of Minamoto no Yorie. When the assassin was himself assassinated, it left the Yoritomo line extinct, and all key government positions were subsequently held by Hojo family members.

? ? ? ? ? 源實(shí)朝是源賴朝的次子，也是源賴家的弟弟，他于公元1203年成為將軍，其母親北條政子和北條時(shí)政擔(dān)任其攝政。源實(shí)朝的16年統(tǒng)治隨著他在公元1219年被自己的侄子、源賴家的兒子源善哉（公曉）刺殺而殘酷結(jié)束。當(dāng)刺客自己被刺殺后，源賴朝的血統(tǒng)就滅絕了，所有關(guān)鍵的政府職位隨后都由北條家族成員擔(dān)任。

Emperor Go-Toba took the opportunity to launch an attempted coup in 1221 CE - the so-called Jokyu Disturbance - which attempted to exploit the ill-feeling caused by the mysterious murder of the shogun. Lacking the military wherewithal to challenge Hojo Masako, the coup ultimately failed and ended in the then-retired emperor's exile to the distant Oki Islands. At least there he found the time and space to write his celebrated poems over the remaining 18 years of his life.

? ? ? ? ? 后鳥羽天皇趁機(jī)在公元1221年發(fā)動(dòng)了一次未遂政變（所謂的承久之亂），試圖利用幕府將軍的神秘謀殺所引起的不快。由于缺乏挑戰(zhàn)北條政子的軍事力量，政變最終失敗，并以當(dāng)時(shí)卸任的天皇被流放到遙遠(yuǎn)的隱岐群島而告終。至少在那里，他找到了時(shí)間和空間，在他生命中剩下的18年里寫下了他著名的詩歌。

There would then follow a long line of regent shoguns who ruled on behalf of minors or puppet shoguns. The last Kamakura shogun was Hojo Moritoki (1327-1333 CE). The power of the shoguns, although changing families several times, would last until the Meiji Restoration of 1868 CE. Japan had become wholly dominated by its warriors, a situation reflected in its literature. The period would produce much martial-themed histories and collections of short stories, the most famous work being The Tale of the Heike (Heike monogatari) which first appeared c. 1218 CE and tells of the struggle to establish the Kamakura shogunate.

? ? ? ? ? 隨后，出現(xiàn)了一長串的攝政將軍，他們代表未成年人或傀儡將軍進(jìn)行統(tǒng)治。最后一位鐮倉將軍是北條守時(shí)（公元1327-1333年）。幕府將軍的權(quán)力，盡管多次更換家族，但一直持續(xù)到公元1868年的明治維新。日本已經(jīng)完全被其武士所支配，這種情況反映在其文學(xué)作品中。這一時(shí)期產(chǎn)生了許多以武術(shù)為主題的歷史和短篇小說集，最著名的作品是《平家物語》（Heike monogatari），它首次出現(xiàn)在公元1218年左右，講述了建立鐮倉幕府的斗爭過程。

鐮倉政府

The shogunate government, also known as bakufu, which means 'tent government' in reference to its origins as a title held by a commander in the field, was based on the feudal relationship between lord and vassal. The former gave lands - confiscated from defeated warlords belonging to families rival to the shoguns - to the latter in return for military service. In the case of a shogun or lord having many estates he might give some of them to a steward (jito) - a position open to men and women - to manage and collect the local taxes with that official then entitled to fees and tenure. The role of steward was frequently given as a reward to loyal members of the shogunate. Many jito became powerful in their own right, and their descendants became daimyo or influential feudal landowners, while another layer of landowners was the military governors or constables (shugo) who had policing and administrative responsibilities in their particular province.

? ? ? ? ? 幕府，也被稱為bakufu，意思是“帳篷政府”，指的是其起源于戰(zhàn)場上指揮官的頭銜，是基于領(lǐng)主和附庸之間的封建關(guān)系。前者將土地（從屬于幕府?dāng)硨易宓膽?zhàn)敗軍閥那里沒收的土地）交給后者，作為軍事服務(wù)的回報(bào)。如果幕府將軍或領(lǐng)主擁有許多地產(chǎn)，他可能會將其中一些地產(chǎn)交給管家（jito）（一個(gè)對男性和女性都開放的職位）來管理和收取當(dāng)?shù)氐亩愂?，然后該官員有權(quán)獲得費(fèi)用和使用權(quán)。管家的角色經(jīng)常被作為獎(jiǎng)勵(lì)給幕府的忠誠成員。許多管家自己成為有權(quán)勢的人，他們的后代成為大名或有影響力的封建地主，而另一層地主是軍事總督或守護(hù)（shugo），他們在其特定的省份負(fù)有治安和行政責(zé)任。

Quite early on it became obvious that the shogun or regent shogun had rather too much on his plate to govern the whole country without any well-defined state apparatus. Accordingly, in 1184 CE the Kumonjo or Public Documents Office was established. This was then renamed and widened in function as the Mandokoro (Administrative Board) in 1191 CE as it became the main administration centre. Later still, it would be given charge of the state treasury. In 1184 CE the Monchujo was set up which looked after all legal matters. A new position, a vice-regent to the shogun (rensho) was created in 1225 CE. In the same year, the Council of State was formed, the Hyojoshu, which had as its members the top officials, warriors, and scholars of the moment. In 1232 CE a new law code was established, the Joei Code (Joei shikimoku), which had 51 articles and established who owned what land, defined the relationship between lords, vassals, and samurai, limited the role of the emperor, and established the taking of legal decisions based on precedence. Finally, in 1249 CE a High Court, the Hikitsukeshu was formed which was especially concerned with any disputes related to land and taxes.

? ? ? ? ? 很早以前，幕府將軍或攝政將軍的任務(wù)就很明顯了，在沒有任何明確的國家機(jī)構(gòu)的情況下，他要治理整個(gè)國家，所以任務(wù)太多。因此，在公元1184年成立了公文院（公共文件辦公處）。公元1191年，它被重新命名為Mandokoro（行政委員會），并擴(kuò)大了職能，因?yàn)樗蔀橹饕男姓行摹：髞?，它還被賦予了管理國家財(cái)政的職能。公元1184年，文中院（法院）成立，負(fù)責(zé)處理所有法律事務(wù)。公元1225年，設(shè)立了一個(gè)新的職位，即幕府將軍的助手（rensho）。同年，評定所（Hyojoshu）成立，其成員包括當(dāng)時(shí)的高級官員、武士和學(xué)者。公元1232年，制定了一部新的法典，即《御成敗式目》（Joei shikimoku），該法典有51條，規(guī)定了誰擁有什么土地，界定了領(lǐng)主、附庸和武士之間的關(guān)系，限制了天皇的作用，并規(guī)定了基于優(yōu)先權(quán)的法律裁決。最后，在公元1249年成立了一個(gè)高等法院（Hikitsuke），即Hikitsukeshu（引付眾調(diào)整員），特別關(guān)注與土地和稅收有關(guān)的任何爭端。

鐮? ? ?倉

Kamakura, the coastal town located on Sagami Bay which gave its name to the period, is 48 kilometres from what would become Tokyo (Edo). It was the base of the Minamoto clan, and it became the capital after Minamoto no Yoritomo sought to distance himself from the former capital at Heiankyo (Kyoto) and any civil servants and officials that might continue to entertain loyalties to the previous regime. The imperial court remained at Heiankyo where titles were dispensed, certain taxes collected, and civilian judicial disputes were settled.

? ? ? ? ? 鐮倉是位于相模灣的沿海城市，它的名字來自于這一時(shí)期，距離后來的東京（江戶）有48公里遠(yuǎn)。它是源氏家族的基地，在源賴朝尋求與前首都平安京（京都）以及任何可能繼續(xù)效忠于前政權(quán)的官員保持距離后，它成為首都。朝廷仍然留在平安京，在那里發(fā)放爵位，征收某些稅款，并解決民事司法糾紛。

Kamakura, protected on three sides by mountains and the sea on the fourth side, was a perfect choice for a military-minded leader. Extra protection was provided by earth fortification walls and two wooden castles: Sugimoto and Sumiyoshi. These defences would come in handy when the city was under siege in 1333 CE at the end of the Kamakura period. The fortifications did their job, but the army of Nitta Yoshisada (l. 1301-1337 CE) circumvented them by going around a cape at low tide and attacking the city from the beach. The city went into decline after the fall of the Kamakura Shogunate, but the 1252 CE Kotokuin Temple continues to pull in visitors thanks to its massive bronze statue of Amida Buddha which is 11.3 metres tall (or 37 ft), excluding the high stone base.

? ? ? ? ? 鐮倉三面環(huán)山，四面臨海，是一個(gè)具有軍事頭腦的領(lǐng)導(dǎo)人的完美選擇。額外的保護(hù)由土墻和兩座木制城堡提供：Sugimoto和Sumiyoshi。這些防御措施在鐮倉時(shí)代結(jié)束時(shí)，即公元1333年城市被圍困時(shí)派上了用場。這些防御工事發(fā)揮了它們的作用，但新田義貞（1301-1337 CE）的軍隊(duì)在退潮時(shí)繞過海角，從海灘上攻擊城市，從而繞過了這些防御工事。鐮倉幕府倒臺后，這座城市開始衰落，但公元1252年的高德院仍然吸引著游客，這里有巨大的阿彌陀佛銅像，高11.3米（或37英尺），不包括高大的石頭底座。

經(jīng)? ? ?濟(jì)

The Kamakura period was generally a good one for the Japanese economy, with trade continuing with China, where gold, mercury, fans, swords, timber, and lacquerware were exchanged for Chinese silk, brocades, perfumes, porcelain, tea, and copper coinage. Coinage was used more frequently, as were bills of credit, sometimes with the unfortunate consequence that people, especially samurai, got into bad debts as they spent beyond their means.

? ? ? ? ? 鐮倉時(shí)期對日本經(jīng)濟(jì)來說是個(gè)好時(shí)期，與中國的貿(mào)易繼續(xù)進(jìn)行，黃金、水銀、扇子、劍、木材和漆器被用來交換中國的絲綢、錦緞、香水、瓷器、茶葉和鑄幣金屬。貨幣的使用更加頻繁，信用證也是如此，有時(shí)會出現(xiàn)不幸的后果，人們，特別是武士，由于消費(fèi)超出了他們的賺錢能力，而陷入了壞賬。

The Kamakura shoguns implemented several land reforms, notably making better use of previously neglected agricultural lands. Technological developments also helped, such as the introduction of a hardier strain of rice from China at the end of the 12th century CE, the widespread use of double-cropping and fertilizers (compost, manure, and ash), and better tools made of better iron than previously. Less land was left fallow because of inheritance disputes when a male relative was lacking. Women were able to own estates in their own right as they continued to be allowed to head families if there was no suitable male relative for the position. Women could inherit and keep their own property no matter what happened to their male relatives or husband.

? ? ? ? ? 鐮倉幕府實(shí)施了幾項(xiàng)土地改革，特別是更好地利用了以前被忽視的農(nóng)業(yè)用地。技術(shù)發(fā)展也起到了作用，例如在公元12世紀(jì)末從中國引進(jìn)了更耐寒的水稻品種，廣泛使用雙季稻和肥料（堆肥、糞肥和草木灰），以及用比以前更好的鐵制造的工具。在缺少男性親屬的情況下，由于繼承糾紛而導(dǎo)致的土地休耕現(xiàn)象減少。婦女能夠擁有自己的財(cái)產(chǎn)，因?yàn)槿绻麤]有合適的男性親屬，她們可以繼續(xù)被允許擔(dān)任戶主。無論她們的男性親屬或丈夫發(fā)生什么事，婦女都可以繼承和保留自己的財(cái)產(chǎn)。

Meanwhile, in urban settings, trade guilds (za) were established, initially for craftspeople and traders to secure the patronage of a monastery or local lord. Formed by anywhere from 10 to 100 workers or companies, the guilds had the effect of increasing specialization and improving standards. Villages began to grow in size as the road networks improved, a development helped by the fact there were, in effect, two capitals (Kamakura and Heiankyo). The result of the peace and prosperity the country enjoyed was a boom in Japan's population from the start to the end of the Kamakura period: around 7 million to 8.2 million.

? ? ? ? ? 同時(shí)，在城市環(huán)境中，貿(mào)易行會（za）建立起來，最初是為手工業(yè)者和商人建立的，以確保寺院或當(dāng)?shù)仡I(lǐng)主的贊助。行會由10至100名工人或投資者組成，起到了提高專業(yè)化程度和改善標(biāo)準(zhǔn)的作用。隨著道路網(wǎng)絡(luò)的改善，村莊的規(guī)模開始擴(kuò)大，這一發(fā)展由于實(shí)際上的兩個(gè)首都（鐮倉和平安京）而得到幫助。國家享受和平與繁榮的結(jié)果是，從鐮倉時(shí)代開始到結(jié)束，日本人口激增：約700萬到820萬。

宗教信仰

It was during the Kamakura period that two significant new sects of Zen Buddhism were developed: the Jodo Sect (aka Pure Land), founded c. 1175 CE by the priest Honen (1133-1212 CE), and the Jodo Shin Sect (aka True Pure Land), founded in 1224 CE by Shinran (1173-1263 CE), the pupil of Honen. Both sects simplified the religion and stressed that simply chanting the Buddha's name (nembutsu) - multiple times for Jodo and a single sincere invocation in the case of Jodo Shin - would permit the person to be reborn in the Amida Buddha's Pure Land paradise. In addition, this enlightenment and advancement to heaven was open to all regardless of their social status.

? ? ? ? ? 正是在鐮倉時(shí)期，禪宗的兩個(gè)重要的新宗派得到了發(fā)展：凈土宗（aka Pure Land），約在公元1175年由法師法然（公元1133-1212年）創(chuàng)立；凈土真宗（aka True Pure Land），在公元1224年由法然的學(xué)生親鸞（公元1173-1263年）創(chuàng)立。這兩個(gè)教派都簡化了宗教，并強(qiáng)調(diào)只要念佛（nembutsu）（在凈土宗是多次念佛，在凈土真宗是一次真誠的祈禱）就能讓人往生到阿彌陀佛的凈土世界。此外，這種開悟和升天對所有人都開放，無論其社會地位如何。

The most important Zen monastery was the Kencho-ji in Kamakura, built by the regent Hoji Tokiyori (l. 1227-1263 CE) in 1253 CE. Zen principles of austerity and restraint became very popular with samurai, and its attention to wabi - the aesthetic principle of beauty, simplicity, and withdrawal from the bustle of life - made the Japanese Tea Ceremony a common aristocratic pastime. The austerity of Zen would also influence Japanese ink painting and calligraphy in the Kamakura period while painting, especially portraiture, became more realistic. Shinto continued to be as important as it was in previous periods, with Kamakura notably receiving the Tsurugaoka Hachiman Shrine.

? ? ? ? ? 最重要的禪宗寺院是鐮倉的建長寺，由攝政王北條時(shí)賴（1227-1263 CE）在公元1253年建造。禪宗緊縮和克制的原則在武士中很受歡迎，它對侘寂的關(guān)注（美麗、簡單和遠(yuǎn)離生活喧囂的美學(xué)原則）使日本茶道成為貴族的常見消遣方式。禪宗的緊縮性也會影響到鐮倉時(shí)期的日本水墨畫和書法，而繪畫，尤其是肖像畫，變得更加現(xiàn)實(shí)。神道仍然和以前一樣重要，鐮倉還特別勸請了鶴岡八幡宮（公元1180年進(jìn)入鐮倉的幕府將軍源賴朝將其移請至現(xiàn)址）。

蒙古人的入侵

The Kamakura period saw one of the greatest threat to Japan's existence, the two Mongol invasions of Kublai Khan in 1274 and 1281 CE. Kublai Khan (r. 1260-1294 CE) had sent a letter to the Japanese government warning of this consequence if they did not pay tribute, but both the shogun and emperor ignored the demand. Fortunately for Japan, when the two invasion fleets each met a typhoon and disaster (but not before the second had landed on the beaches of Kyushu), the winds that either sunk or blew the Mongol ships safely away from Japanese shores were given the name kamikaze or 'divine winds.' It seems that the Mongol ships were not particularly well-built either and so proved much less seaworthy than they should have been. The period of high suspense between the two invasions, and indeed the expectation of a third attack, did harm the country as an army had to be kept in constant readiness and payment to soldiers became a serious problem for the government leading to widespread discontent. The agricultural sector was also severely disrupted by the defence preparations. Rivals to the Hojo clan now had their best opportunity to challenge the political status quo.

? ? ? ? ? 鐮倉時(shí)期，日本生存受到了最大的威脅之一，即公元1274年和1281年忽必烈的兩次入侵。忽必烈汗（1260-1294 CE）曾致函日本政府，警告他們?nèi)绻贿M(jìn)貢會有嚴(yán)重的后果，但幕府將軍和天皇都沒有理會這一要求。對日本來說，幸運(yùn)的是，當(dāng)兩支入侵艦隊(duì)各自遇到臺風(fēng)和災(zāi)難時(shí)（但在第二支艦隊(duì)在九州海灘登陸之前），將蒙古船只擊沉或吹離日本海岸的風(fēng)被命名為神風(fēng)（divine winds）。兩次入侵之間的緊張間歇期，以及對第三次進(jìn)攻的應(yīng)對，確實(shí)對國家造成了影響，因?yàn)檐婈?duì)必須保持持續(xù)的戰(zhàn)備狀態(tài)，對士兵的薪資成為政府的一個(gè)嚴(yán)重問題，導(dǎo)致了廣泛的不滿情緒。農(nóng)業(yè)部門也因國防準(zhǔn)備工作而受到嚴(yán)重干擾。北條氏族的競爭對手現(xiàn)在有了挑戰(zhàn)政治現(xiàn)狀的最好機(jī)會。

衰落與室町幕府

The disaffection caused by the necessity to keep Japan on a war footing was exploited by Emperor Go-Daigo (r. 1318-1339 CE) who sought to return to the good old days of the emperors before Minamoto no Yoritomo had started the shoguns. The emperor made two attempts to grab power, one in 1324 CE and another in 1331 CE. Neither was successful, and he was exiled for his troubles. Then came what has become known as the Kenmu Restoration, which lasted from 1333 to 1336 CE. Go-Daigo returned from exile and tried to enlist the aid of warlords disgruntled with the Kamakura Shogunate. The emperor found a willing ally in the traitorous army commander Ashikaga Takauji, actually sent by the Kamakura Shogunate to deal with Go-Daigo. Takauji attacked Heiankyo while another rebel warlord, Nitta Yoshisada, attacked Kamakura. Victorious, Takauji wanted to be the new shogun but Go-Daigo refused to give him this title because he did not want to return to a position of subservience. Takauji defeated Go-Daigo's chief ally Yoshisada in battle and captured Heiankyo in 1336 CE; the former emperor was exiled for a second time (although he then established his own court at Yoshino). Ashikaga Takauji found himself a more compliant emperor, Komyo, to act as the state's figurehead and became shogun in 1338 CE, thus inaugurating the Ashikaga Shogunate (aka Muromachi Shogunate, 1338-1573 CE). He would hold the position for the next 20 years, and this new chapter in Japan's history would become known as the Muromachi Period (1333-1573 CE).

? ? ? ? ? 日本長期處于戰(zhàn)爭狀態(tài)引起的各種不滿被后醍醐天皇（1318-1339 CE）所利用，他試圖回到源賴朝創(chuàng)立幕府之前天皇的好時(shí)代。后醍醐天皇曾兩次試圖奪取權(quán)力，一次是在公元1324年，另一次是在公元1331年。兩次都沒有成功，他也因?yàn)閵Z權(quán)失敗而被流放。之后，被稱為“建武新政”的事件發(fā)生了，它從公元1333年持續(xù)到1336年。后醍醐從流放地返回，試圖爭取對鐮倉幕府不滿的軍閥的援助。天皇在叛國的軍隊(duì)指揮官足利尊氏身上找到了一個(gè)心甘情愿的盟友，他實(shí)際上是由鐮倉幕府派來對付后醍醐天皇的。足利尊氏攻擊了平安京，而另一個(gè)叛軍軍閥新田義貞則攻擊了鐮倉。勝利后的足利尊氏想成為新的幕府將軍，但后醍醐天皇拒絕給他這個(gè)頭銜，因?yàn)樗幌朐倩氐角鼜牡牡匚?。足利尊氏在?zhàn)斗中擊敗了后醍醐天皇的主要盟友新田義貞，并在公元1336年占領(lǐng)了平安京；前天皇第二次被流放（盡管他后來在吉野建立了自己的宮廷）。足利尊氏為自己找到了一個(gè)更順從的光明天皇，作為國家的形象代言人，并在公元1338年成為幕府將軍，從而開啟了室町幕府（又稱足利幕府，公元1338-1573年）。他在接下來的20年里擔(dān)任這一職務(wù)，這一新時(shí)代被稱為室町時(shí)代（公元1333-1573年）。

參考書目：

Beasley, W.G. The Japanese Experience. Phoenix Press, 2019.

Deal, W.E. Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan. Oxford University Press, 2007.

Ebrey, P.B. Pre-Modern East Asia. Cengage Learning, 2013.

Henshall, K. Historical Dictionary of Japan to 1945. Scarecrow Press, 2013.

Huffman, J.L. Japan in World History. Oxford University Press, 2010.

Mason, R.H.P. A History of Japan. Tuttle Publishing, 1997.

Sansom, G. A History of Japan to 1334. Stanford University Press, 1958.

Tsuda, N. A History of Japanese Art. Tuttle Publishing, 2009.

Turnbull, S. Japanese Castles AD 250-1540. Osprey Publishing, 2008.

Yamamura, K. (ed). The Cambridge History of Japan, Vol. 3. Cambridge University Press, 2001.

原文作者：Mark Cartwright

????????? 駐意大利的歷史作家。他的主要興趣包括陶瓷、建筑、世界神話和發(fā)現(xiàn)所有文明的共同思想。他擁有政治哲學(xué)碩士學(xué)位，是《世界歷史百科全書》的出版總監(jiān)。

原文網(wǎng)址：https://www.worldhistory.org/Kamakura_Period/