英國、法國和西班牙的中央集權(quán)

英 格 蘭

? ? ? ? ??當(dāng)羅馬人的統(tǒng)治在五世紀(jì)的第一個十年結(jié)束時，羅馬士兵的離開為日耳曼部落、盎格魯人、撒克遜人和朱特人遷移到英格蘭鋪平了道路，他們在那里建立了自己的王國。盎格魯人定居在東盎格利亞、麥西亞和諾森布里亞地區(qū)。撒克遜人統(tǒng)治著威塞克斯、蘇塞克斯和埃塞克斯，而朱特人則控制著部分肯特和漢普郡。在隨后的三個世紀(jì)里，各部落之間的戰(zhàn)爭時斷時續(xù)，以擴大他們在島上的權(quán)力，同時基督教化也在不斷深入。到六世紀(jì)中期，所有的盎格魯-撒克遜國王都皈依了羅馬基督教。

When Roman rule came to an end in the first decade of the fifth century, the departure of Roman soldiers paved the way for the migration of Germanic tribes, the Angles, the Saxons, and the Jutes, into England, where they established territorial kingdoms. The Angles settled in the regions of East Anglia, Mercia, and Northumbria. The Saxons ruled Wessex, Sussex, and Essex, while the Jutes partly controlled Kent and Hampshire. The following three centuries witnessed intermittent war and struggles among the various tribes to expand their power over the island at the same time that Christianization was ma??????? king inroads. By the mid-sixth century, all the Anglo-Saxon kings had converted to Roman Christianity.

? ? ? ? ? 然而，英格蘭的基督教化并沒有促成政治上的統(tǒng)一。八世紀(jì)，諾森布里亞、麥西亞、東盎格利亞、威塞克斯、蘇塞克斯、埃塞克斯和肯特這七個主要王國的權(quán)力波動占了上風(fēng)。在九世紀(jì)，維京人入侵英格蘭，大大改變了當(dāng)?shù)氐恼尉謩荨|盎格利亞國瓦解了，諾森布里亞處于維京人的統(tǒng)治之下，而麥西亞則被維京人和盎格魯-撒克遜人劃分。然而，并非所有的王國都瓦解了。在阿爾弗雷德大帝（871-899年）的統(tǒng)治時期，威塞克斯王國比以往任何時候都要強大，它將蘇塞克斯和肯特的領(lǐng)土納入其中。威塞克斯國王將他們的王國擴展到麥西亞和威爾士的大部分地區(qū)，而在阿爾弗雷德的孫子埃塞爾斯坦（924-939）統(tǒng)治時期，整個英格蘭第一次被統(tǒng)一。

The Christianization of England did not foment political unity, however. The eighth century was dominated by fluctuations in power among the seven principal kingdoms of Northumbria, Mercia, East Anglia, Wessex, Sussex, Essex, and Kent. In the ninth century Viking warriors invaded Britain and altered the political map substantially. The Kingdom of East Anglia disintegrated. Northumbria came under Viking rule, and Mercia was divided between Viking and Anglo-Saxon rule. Not all was disintegration, however. During the reign of King Aelfred (r. 871–899), the Kingdom of Wessex emerged stronger than ever before, having incorporated the territories of Sussex and Kent. The Wessex kings extended their realm over Mercia and much of Wales, and it was during the reign of Alfred’s grandson, Athelstan (924– 939), that the whole of England was first united under one rule.

? ? ? ? ??到了10世紀(jì)末，維京人控制的“幽靈”再次抬頭，愛塞烈德二世（Aethelred the Unready）將他的王國輸給了丹麥國王斯文（Swein），開啟了各自繼承人之間的王朝爭斗時期。在斯文的兒子克努特大帝統(tǒng)治期間，英格蘭被吸收到維京人的北海帝國中。1066年，盎格魯-撒克遜國王懺悔者愛德華在沒有繼承人的情況下去世，英格蘭王位的爭奪戰(zhàn)由愛德華的堂兄諾曼底公爵贏得，也就是征服者威廉（1066-87年）。威廉對王位的要求受到了愛德華的妹夫哈羅德·葛溫森的挑戰(zhàn)，威廉在決定性的黑斯廷斯之戰(zhàn)（1066年）中殺死了哈羅德。威廉獲得了教皇亞歷山大二世（R. 1061-73）的支持，正是在教皇的祝福下，威廉入侵了英格蘭。威廉下令對英格蘭進行大規(guī)模的調(diào)查，其結(jié)果被記錄在《末日審判書》（1080-86）中，并將整個國家變成了一個皇家領(lǐng)地。

By the end of the 10th century, the specter of Viking control reared its head again as Aethelred the Unready lost his kingdom to the Danish king Swein, inaugurating a period of dynastic rivalry between the heirs of each. During the reign of Swein’s son Canute, England became absorbed into the Viking North Sea kingdom. When the Anglo-Saxon king Edward the Confessor died in 1066 without an heir, the battle for the English throne was won by Edward’s cousin the duke of Normandy, otherwise known as William the Conqueror (r. 1066–87). William’s claim to the throne had been challenged by Edward’s brother-in-law Harold Godwinson, whom William killed in the decisive Battle of Hastings (1066). William had gained the backing of Pope Alexander II (r. 1061–73), and it was with the pope’s blessing that William invaded England. William ordered a massive survey of England, the results of which were inscribed in the Domesday Book (1080–86), and converted the entire country into a royal fiefdom.

? ? ? ? ? 整個中世紀(jì)時期，英格蘭王國的中央集權(quán)仍然是一個永恒的問題。君主的集權(quán)愿望與地方封建男爵的分權(quán)愿望之間的沖突，加上頻繁的王位繼承糾紛，在蘭開斯特和約克家族之間的玫瑰戰(zhàn)爭（1455-85）中達到頂峰。盎格魯-撒克遜人和盎格魯-諾曼人之間的政治與文化爭斗也引起了內(nèi)亂。法國王室對英格蘭王位的要求未果，導(dǎo)致了英法百年戰(zhàn)爭的爆發(fā)。

The centralization of the Kingdom of England remained a constant problem throughout the medieval period. The perennial conflict between the centralizing aspirations of the monarchy and the decentralizing ambitions of local feudal barons, together with frequent disputes over the succession of the throne, reached its zenith in the Wars of the Roses (1455–85) between the rival Houses of Lancaster and York. Political and cultural rivalries between the Anglo-Saxons and the Anglo-Normans also caused civil strife. French royal claims to the throne of England, and vice versa, led to the Hundred Years’ War.

《大 憲 章》

? ? ? ? ? 英國王室的鞏固也是在違背教會利益的情況下產(chǎn)生的。不屬于神圣羅馬帝國的西方中世紀(jì)王國需要得到帝國或教皇的批準(zhǔn)，以使其統(tǒng)治相對于其他可能的王位競爭者而言更具合法化。金雀花王朝的創(chuàng)始人亨利二世（1154-89年）打破了這一傳統(tǒng)，他尋求建立一個專制和真正的主權(quán)君主制國家。他認(rèn)為，君主應(yīng)該對其領(lǐng)地內(nèi)的教會擁有主權(quán)。因此，他在1164年頒布了《克拉倫敦法典》，將神職人員置于國王的法庭之下，并授權(quán)國王選舉主教的權(quán)力。以托馬斯·貝克特大主教（約1118-70）為代表的教會否定了這些措施。隨后的權(quán)力斗爭導(dǎo)致了貝克特被謀殺。當(dāng)亨利的繼任者約翰（1199-1216年）在皇室與教皇的沖突中失利，并將他的王國作為教皇的封地交出時，英國男爵們對其進行了反抗，并迫使他進一步限制君主的絕對權(quán)力。由此產(chǎn)生的協(xié)議被載入《大憲章》，其中包括建立一個固定的法庭，以及包括君主在內(nèi)的所有人都要受法律約束和人們應(yīng)該由其同僚審判的原則。它還規(guī)定君主在征收新稅之前必須征得土地階層的同意。

The consolidation of the English Crown also came about over and against the interests of the church. Western medieval kingdoms that did not belong to the Holy Roman Empire needed Imperial or papal approval in order to legitimate their rule vis-à-vis other possible pretenders to the throne. Henry II (r. 1154–89), the founder of the Plantagenet dynasty, broke with this tradition by seeking to create an autocratic and truly sovereign monarchy. He believed that the monarch should have sovereignty over the church within his realm. Accordingly, in 1164 he issued the Constitutions of Clarendon, which subjected the clergy to the king’s courts and empowered the king to elect bishops. The church, represented by Archbishop Thomas à Becket (c. 1118–70), repudiated these measures. The ensuing power struggle resulted in the tragic murder of Becket. When Henry’s successor, John (r. 1199–1216), lost ground in the royal-papal conflict and surrendered his kingdom as a papal fiefdom, the English barons rebelled against him and forced him to restrict further the authority of the monarchy. The resulting accord was enshrined in the Magna Carta (Great Charter), which, among other things, established a fixed law court and the principles that everyone, including the sovereign, was subject to the law and that people should be tried by their peers. It also obliged the monarch to obtain the consent of the landed classes before imposing new taxes.

法? ? ?國

? ? ? ? ? 統(tǒng)治現(xiàn)代法國領(lǐng)土的墨洛溫王朝和加洛林王朝的國王只對他們個人擁有的、構(gòu)成皇家領(lǐng)地的土地享有直接主權(quán)；其他領(lǐng)土由封建領(lǐng)主持有，以示敬意。當(dāng)加洛林王朝的最后一位統(tǒng)治者于987年去世時，于格·卡佩(Hugh Capet)，一個強大的德國貴族（法蘭克公爵于格和東法蘭克國王亨利·福勒的女兒薩克森海德薇格的兒子），神圣羅馬帝國皇帝奧托二世的盟友，以及強大的蘭斯大主教的忠實門徒，他說服了大主教，讓其加冕為法蘭克國王。卡佩王朝的統(tǒng)治從987年持續(xù)到1328年。

The Merovingian and Carolingian kings who ruled the territories of what is modern-day France only enjoyed direct sovereignty over the lands they personally owned that constituted the royal demesne. The other territories were held in homage by feudal lords. When the last Carolingian ruler died in 987, Hugh Capet, a formidable German aristocrat, ally to the Holy Roman Emperor Otto II, and loyal protégé of the powerful archbishop of Reims, convinced the archbishop to have him crowned king of France. The Capetian dynasty would last from 987 to 1328.

? ? ? ? ? 對于于格·卡佩的所有強大盟友來說，他自己的宗主權(quán)范圍并沒有超出他所擁有的土地：在沙特爾和安茹的財產(chǎn)以及巴黎和奧爾良之間的幾個城鎮(zhèn)。如果不冒著被阿基坦、勃艮第、布列塔尼和諾曼底公國的封建男爵，還有香檳郡——特別是布盧瓦郡的封建男爵抓走的風(fēng)險，于格·卡佩幾乎無法在自己的領(lǐng)土之外冒險，而布盧瓦郡的統(tǒng)治者奧多一世（955年去世）曾試圖將他廢黜。在不同的領(lǐng)土上適用不同的法典，多種貨幣并存，還存在語言上的差異（盎格魯-諾曼語、奧克語、奧依語和德語），進一步加劇了“法國”的分裂性。

For all of Hugh’s powerful allies, his own sphere of suzerainty did not extend beyond the lands he owned: minor properties in Chartres and Anjou and a few towns between Paris and Orleans. Hugh could hardly venture outside his territory without risking capture by the feudal barons of the Duchies of Aquitaine, Burgundy, Brittany, and Normandy; the County of Champagne; and especially the County of Blois, whose ruler, Odo I (d. 955), attempted to have him deposed. The fragmentation of “France” was further exacerbated by the application of different codes of law in the distinct territories, the coexistence of numerous currencies, and linguistic differences (Anglo-Norman, Occitan, Langue d’o?l, and German).

? ? ? ? ?漸漸地，通過通婚、繼承或戰(zhàn)爭，卡佩王朝的國王們成功地擴大了王國的領(lǐng)土。于格·卡佩的兒子羅伯特二世（996-1031年）在1016年獲得了勃艮第公國。另一方面，亨利一世（1031-60年在位）試圖從征服者威廉公爵手中奪取諾曼底公國的努力也失敗了。對卡佩王朝中央集權(quán)的最嚴(yán)重威脅發(fā)生在12世紀(jì)中期，諾曼底、安茹和阿基坦公國與英格蘭王國在盎格魯-諾曼-金雀花王朝的領(lǐng)導(dǎo)下聯(lián)合起來。

Gradually, through intermarriage, succession, or war, the Capetian kings succeeded in extending their kingdom. Hugh’s son, Robert II (r. 996–1031), acquired the Duchy of Burgundy in 1016. On the other hand, Henry I (r. 1031–60) failed in his attempts to capture the Duchy of Normandy from Duke William the Conqueror. The most serious threat to Capetian centralizing ambitions occurred in the mid-12th century with the union of the Duchies of Normandy, Anjou, and Aquitaine with the Kingdom of England under the Anglo-Norman Plantagenet dynasty

? ? ? ? ? 三位卡佩王朝的國王在法國君主制及其機構(gòu)的中央化方面發(fā)揮了決定性的作用。腓力二世·奧古斯都（1180-1223年）、路易九世（1226-70年）和腓力四世（1285-1314年）。腓力二世·奧古斯都在將其統(tǒng)治擴展到法國北部和西部的大部分地區(qū)方面取得了長足的進步。他在1214年的布汶戰(zhàn)役中戰(zhàn)勝了奧托四世皇帝（1209-15年）和安茹國王約翰（1199-1216年）的聯(lián)合部隊，為他贏得了諾曼底地區(qū)，并使他成為歐洲最強大的君主。

Three Capetian kings played a decisive role in the centralization of the French monarchy and its institutions: Philip Augustus (r. 1180– 1223), Louis IX (r. 1226–70), and Philip the Fair (1285–1314). Philip Augustus made great strides in extending his rule over most of northern and western France. His critical victory over the combined forces of Emperor Otto IV (r. 1209–15) and the Angevin king John (r. 1199–1216) at the Battle of Bouvines in 1214 won him Normandy and made him the most powerful monarch of Europe.

? ? ? ? ? 在信仰虔誠的路易九世統(tǒng)治時期，王國處于一段輝煌的時期，路易在1297年被封為圣人。他成功地平息了布列塔尼和圖盧茲公爵的反叛，并將和平強加給法國貴族的其他交戰(zhàn)派別。他的主要任務(wù)是確保法國北部的完整，不受英國君主的影響。為此，他在《巴黎條約》（1258）中與英國國王亨利三世達成了領(lǐng)土協(xié)議。亨利同意放棄對諾曼底、安茹、圖蘭、緬因和普瓦圖的要求，并正式承認(rèn)卡佩王朝對這些領(lǐng)土的宗主權(quán)，以換取對南部利摩日（里摩）、卡奧爾和佩里格教區(qū)、桑通日和阿日奈（阿讓）的所有皇家土地的主權(quán)。1258年，他與阿拉貢國王海梅一世（Jaime I，1213-76年）在《1258年科貝爾條約》中達成了類似的協(xié)議，放棄了法國對魯西永（魯西隆）和巴塞羅那的要求，以換取阿拉貢放棄對普羅旺斯和朗格多克的要求。圣路易還在阿爾比十字軍東征中發(fā)揮了主導(dǎo)作用，他于1229年將朗格多克納入法國版圖。

The kingdom enjoyed a period of glory under the reign of Louis IX the Pious, who was canonized as a saint in 1297. Louis successfully quelled the rebellious feudal uprisings of the dukes of Brittany and Toulouse and imposed peace upon other warring factions of the French nobility. His main priority was to secure the integrity of northern France from the English monarchy. To this end, he made a territorial agreement with the English king Henry III in the Treaty of Paris (1258). Henry agreed to renounce his claims over Normandy, Anjou, Touraine, Maine, and Poitou and formally recognize Capetian liege suzerainty over these territories in exchange for sovereignty over all the royal lands in the southern dioceses of Limoges, Cahors and Perigueux, Saintonge, and Agenais. He forged a similar agreement with the king of Aragon Jaime I (r. 1213–76) in the Treaty of Corbeil in 1258 to relinquish French claims to Rousillon and Barcelona in exchange for Aragon’s renunciation of its claims to Provence and Languedoc. Saint Louis also played a leading role in the Albigensian Crusade, which brought Languedoc into his realm in 1229.

? ? ? ? ? 腓力四世對鞏固法國王室的貢獻不在于他的領(lǐng)土擴張——盡管他試圖發(fā)動“十字軍東征”以收復(fù)阿拉貢的努力慘遭失敗，他與納瓦拉的胡安娜的婚姻（1271-1305年）也沒有什么政治意義，而在于他加強了王國與教會的關(guān)系。腓力四世恰逢阿維尼翁之囚時期，他抓住了教廷轉(zhuǎn)移到阿維尼翁的機會，對所有神職人員的一半收入進行征稅。更為臭名昭著的是，他還下令逮捕了富可敵國的圣殿騎士團的所有成員，并在該軍事組織解散后沒收了他們的資產(chǎn)，歸于皇家。

Phillip the Fair’s contribution to the consolidation of the French Crown lies less in his territorial acquisitions—his attempt to launch a “crusade” to recover Aragon failed miserably, and his marriage to Queen Juana of Navarre (1271–1305) was of minimal political relevance—than in his strengthening of the kingdom vis-à-vis the church. Phillip’s reign coincided with the beginning of the Babylonian Captivity, and he seized the opportunity afforded by the transfer of the papacy to Avignon to extort taxes on one-half of the income of all the clergy. More notoriously, the Capetian king ordered the arrest of all the members of the fabulously wealthy Knights Templar and seized their assets for the Crown once the military order was disbanded.

? ? ? ? ? 瓦盧瓦王朝查理七世（1422-61年在位）在位期間，恰逢百年戰(zhàn)爭的最后幾年。查理英勇地挑戰(zhàn)了《特魯瓦條約》（1420年），該條約賦予了英國人要求獲得法國王位的權(quán)利，并收回了失去的所有領(lǐng)土。路易十一（1461-83年）還獲得了對剩余封建領(lǐng)主的控制權(quán)，并將整個法國統(tǒng)一在其統(tǒng)治之下。

The reign of the Valois king Charles VII (r. 1422–61) coincided with the final years of the Hundred Years’ War. Charles valiantly challenged the Treaty of Troyes (1420), which granted the English the right to claim the French throne and recovered all the territories lost to the English Crown. Last but not least, Louis XI (r. 1461–83) gained control over the remaining feudal lords and united all of France under his rule.

百年戰(zhàn)爭（1337-1453）和玫瑰戰(zhàn)爭（1455-1485）

? ? ? ? ? 戰(zhàn)爭的政治影響要求地圖繪制者在前一張地圖的油漆尚未干透時就得重新劃定邊界。有些敵意似乎是永久性的，百年戰(zhàn)爭的起源在于1066年諾曼人對英格蘭的征服。作為征服者威廉的繼承人，英格蘭的國王們要比法國國王控制更多的領(lǐng)土。例如，當(dāng)金雀花王朝的創(chuàng)始人亨利二世于1154年繼承英格蘭王位時，他的財產(chǎn)包括諾曼底、安茹和緬因等法國領(lǐng)土，在他與阿基坦的埃莉諾結(jié)婚后，這些領(lǐng)土又?jǐn)U大到阿基坦和加斯科尼。自然，法國王室對這種情況很反感。

The political effects of war required mapmakers to redraw boundaries before the preceding map’s paint was dry. Some enmities seemed perpetual. The origins of the Hundred Years’ War lay in the Norman Conquest of England in 1066. The kings of England who were the heirs of William the Conqueror were to control more territory in France than did the French kings. For instance, when Henry II, the founder of the Plantagenet dynasty, inherited the throne of England in 1154, his holdings included the French territories of Normandy, Anjou, and Maine, and these were expanded to Aquitaine and Gascony upon his marriage to Eleanor of Aquitaine. Naturally the French Crown resented this situation.

? ? ? ? ? 盡管有王朝聯(lián)姻來短暫地創(chuàng)造和平或恢復(fù)和平，但英國和法國一直在打仗。他們在1337年至1453年之間的116年的戰(zhàn)爭被稱為百年戰(zhàn)爭。這些事件將這兩個中世紀(jì)的君主國轉(zhuǎn)變?yōu)樵缙诘默F(xiàn)代民族國家，并為讓·弗魯瓦薩爾的《傅華薩大事記》和莎士比亞的歷史劇《亨利五世》和《亨利六世》提供了戲劇化的故事情節(jié)。法國神秘主義者圣女貞德（1412-31）的神跡將激勵法國國王查理七世（1422-61年）奪回被英國和勃艮第軍隊占領(lǐng)的領(lǐng)土。在貝德福德公爵的唆使下，貞德被處決，成為一名殉道者和法國民族英雄。

Despite dynastic marriages to create peace or to restore it, England and France fought consistently. Their battles for 116 years between 1337 and 1453 are called the Hundred Years’ War. Those events transformed both medieval monarchies to early modern nationstates and provided dramatic storylines for Froissart’s Chronicles and Shakespeare’s history plays Henry V and Henry VI. A divine vision of the French mystic Joan of Arc (1412–31) would inspire the French king Charles VII (r. 1422– 61) to recapture the territories taken by English and Burgundian troops. Her execution at the instigation of the duke of Bedford converted her into a martyr and a national French heroine.

? ? ? ? ? 英法之間的百年戰(zhàn)爭改變了戰(zhàn)爭和國家的觀念。英國建立了一支由招募士兵組成的雇傭軍隊，這是對傳統(tǒng)的封建征兵制度的一種革命性的進步。長弓的完善改變了歐洲戰(zhàn)爭的面貌，擺脫了過去對重騎兵的依賴。到1453年戰(zhàn)爭結(jié)束時，兩個強大的歐洲國家逐漸產(chǎn)生了民族意識。戰(zhàn)爭不再被視為個別國王之間的沖突，而是英國和法國人民之間的沖突。百年戰(zhàn)爭使封建的法國逐漸演變?yōu)橐粋€現(xiàn)代中央集權(quán)國家。它也從根本上改變了英國的經(jīng)濟，鼓勵英國人形成自己的布業(yè)和市場，獨立于其善變的比利時盟友。

The Hundred Years’ War between England and France transformed warfare and the idea of the state. England’s creation of a paid army of recruited soldiers was a revolutionary advance over the traditional feudal conscription. The perfection of the longbow changed the face of European warfare by doing away with the old reliance upon heavy cavalry. By its end in 1453, national consciousness emerged in the two powerful European states. Warfare was no longer regarded as conflicts between individual kings but between English and French people. The Hundred Years’ War converted feudal France into a modern centralized state. It also radically altered England’s economy by encouraging the English to form their own cloth industry and markets independent of its fickle Belgian allies.

? ? ? ? ? 英國的這些積極成果并不能阻止僅僅兩年后爆發(fā)的內(nèi)戰(zhàn)，玫瑰戰(zhàn)爭（1455-85）使金雀花王朝的敵對分支為控制王位而相互對立。玫瑰戰(zhàn)爭的名稱是指爭議雙方的紋章，蘭開斯特家族用紅玫瑰代表，約克家族用白玫瑰代表。由于約克家族在短期內(nèi)取得了勝利，這場戰(zhàn)爭導(dǎo)致了金雀花王朝的衰落，削弱了封建貴族的控制力，并促使了都鐸王朝君主的崛起，他們建立了一個強大的中央集權(quán)政府。

Such positive gains for England could not prevent the eruption of civil war a mere two years later when the Wars of the Roses (1455– 85) pitted rival branches of the Plantagenet dynasty against each other for control of the throne. The name Wars of the Roses refers to the heraldic emblems of the two disputing sides, the House of Lancaster, represented by a red rose, and the House of York, represented by a white rose. As the House of York prevailed in the short run, the war led to the fall of the Plantagenet dynasty, weakened the control of the feudal nobility, and led to the rise of the Tudor monarchs, who created a strong centralized government.

西 班 牙

? ? ? ? ? 在476年西羅馬帝國倒向野蠻人的幾十年前，羅馬的伊斯帕尼亞省已經(jīng)屈服于日耳曼汪達爾人、阿蘭人、施瓦本人和西哥特人部落的入侵。西哥特人取得了勝利，將其他部落趕到北非，并在托萊多建立了自己的首都。西哥特人的統(tǒng)治在711年隨著塔里克·伊本·齊亞德（Tariq ibn Ziyad，約八世紀(jì)）領(lǐng)導(dǎo)的穆斯林軍隊的入侵而結(jié)束。盡管在王朝的繼承問題上經(jīng)常發(fā)生爭吵，但他們在位的三個世紀(jì)中，大部分時間都是對整個半島的中央集權(quán)統(tǒng)治。拜占庭曾在554年短暫收復(fù)科爾多瓦，但西哥特人最終在584年占領(lǐng)了科爾多瓦。西哥特人首先通過堅持阿里烏主義（直到557年）和社會隔離政策與當(dāng)?shù)氐奶熘鹘掏绞柽h(yuǎn)，并且無情地迫害猶太人。因此，當(dāng)穆斯林于710-11年進入半島，表面上是為了干預(yù)西哥特人的王位競爭者之間的繼承內(nèi)戰(zhàn)時，當(dāng)?shù)鼐用駥π陆y(tǒng)治者幾乎沒有抵抗。

Decades before the fall of the Western Roman Empire to the barbarians in 476, the Roman province of Hispania had already succumbed to the invasions of the Germanic Vandal, Alanic, Swebian, and Visigoth tribes. The Visigoths prevailed, driving the other tribes to North Africa and establishing their capital at Toledo. The Visigothic reign ended in 711 with the invasion of the Muslim armies led by Tariq ibn Ziyad (fl. eighth century). Despite recurring quarrels over dynastic succession, the three centuries in which they reigned were for the most part characterized by centralized rule over the entire peninsula. One notable exception was the brief Byzantine recovery in 554 of Córdoba, which the Visigoths recovered definitively in 584. The Visigoths estranged themselves from the Catholic local population, first by their adherence to Arianism (until 557) and by their policy of social segregation, and relentlessly persecuted the Jews. Thus, when the Muslims entered the peninsula in 710–11, ostensibly to intervene in the civil war of succession among Visigoth rivals to the throne, the local population put up little resistance to the new rulers.

? ? ? ? ? 711年至1492年間，伊比利亞半島的各個地區(qū)被伊斯蘭王朝所統(tǒng)治。伊斯蘭統(tǒng)治結(jié)束了該地區(qū)的政治統(tǒng)一。穆斯林在任何時候都沒有對整個半島實施控制。加利西亞、阿斯圖里亞斯等最北端的地區(qū)以及巴斯克部分地區(qū)要么完全逃脫征服，要么在入侵后一代人的時間內(nèi)被奪回，而穆斯林在8世紀(jì)和9世紀(jì)試圖征服納瓦拉的行動被查理曼大帝以及納瓦拉國王成功擊退。查理曼大帝越過比利牛斯山脈，于795年在西班牙邊疆區(qū)（巴塞羅那邊疆區(qū)）建立了法蘭克帝國的統(tǒng)治，這是一個標(biāo)志著與西班牙穆斯林邊界的緩沖區(qū)。西班牙邊疆區(qū)被劃分為納瓦拉、赫羅納、巴塞羅那和維克等郡，這些郡都效忠于法蘭克人。

Between 711 and 1492, various regions of the Iberian Peninsula were governed by Islamic dynasties. Islamic rule ended the political unity of the region. At no time did Muslims exert control over the entire peninsula: The northernmost regions of Galicia, Asturias, and parts of the Basque territory either escaped conquest altogether or were recaptured within a generation of the invasion, while Muslim attempts in the eighth and ninth centuries to conquer Navarre were successfully repelled by Charlemagne and subsequently by the Navarrese kings. Charlemagne crossed the Pyrenees and in 795 established Frankish imperial rule in the Spanish March, a buffer zone that marked the frontier with Muslim Spain. The Spanish March was divided into the Counties of Navarre, Girona, Barcelona, and Vich, which owed allegiance to the Franks.

? ? ? ? ? 西班牙北部出現(xiàn)的基督教王國并不遵守長子繼承的習(xí)俗，在一個統(tǒng)治期間通過戰(zhàn)爭或婚姻聯(lián)盟獲得的領(lǐng)土統(tǒng)一，在所有已故國王的繼承人之間的分割中喪失了。因此，各個王國之間的競爭非常激烈，基督教和穆斯林領(lǐng)袖和軍閥經(jīng)常結(jié)成聯(lián)盟，共同對付同一敵人，從而使從穆斯林占領(lǐng)之初就不斷進行十字軍東征的神話成為謊言。此外，1031年倭馬亞哈里發(fā)政權(quán)崩潰后出現(xiàn)的混亂，以及其解體為各種“黨派王國”，為野心家奪取領(lǐng)土鋪平了道路，例如傳奇人物羅德里戈·迪亞茲·德·維瓦爾（El Cid，熙德，約1040-99），他為穆斯林權(quán)貴充當(dāng)雇傭兵，然后在1094年征服了穆斯林的巴倫西亞（瓦倫西亞）公國。

The Christian kingdoms that emerged in northern Spain did not observe the custom of primogeniture, and thus territorial unification gained through warfare or marriage alliances during one reign was lost in the divisions among all the deceased king’s heirs. Consequently, competition among the various kingdoms was fierce, and Christian and Muslim leaders and warlords often formed alliances against a mutual enemy, thus giving the lie to the myth of a continuous crusade from the beginning of the Muslim occupation. Moreover, the chaos that followed the collapse of the Umayyad caliphate in 1031 and its disintegration into various “party kingdoms” paved the way for ambitious men to capture their own territories, such as the legendary Rodrigo Díaz de Vivar, El Cid (c. 1040– 99), who served as a mercenary to Muslim potentates and then conquered the Muslim principality of Valencia in 1094.

? ? ? ? ? 西哥特人滅亡后出現(xiàn)的第一個基督教王國是阿斯圖里亞斯王國，其國王阿方索一世（739-757年）從穆斯林手中奪取了加利西亞（740年）和萊昂（754年），并建立了人口稀少的“杜羅河沙漠地帶”，這使他的王國相對安全，免受穆斯林入侵。在10世紀(jì)的頭幾十年里，穆斯林的進一步失敗使阿斯圖里亞國王得以將首都遷往萊昂，并在924年左右建立了萊昂王國。

The first Christian kingdom that emerged after the demise of the Visigoths was the Realm of Asturias, whose king Alfonso I (739–757) conquered Galicia (740) and León (754) from the Muslims and created the depopulated “desert zone of the Duero River,” which endowed his kingdom with relative safety from Muslim incursion. Further defeats of the Muslims in the first decades of the 10th century enabled the Asturian kings to relocate their capital to León and to establish the Kingdom of León circa 924.

? ? ? ? ? 930年，卡斯蒂利亞伯爵費爾南·岡薩雷斯（930-970年）宣布自己的郡是一個王國，在他的盟友科爾多瓦哈里發(fā)國的幫助下，擴大了自己的領(lǐng)土，并犧牲了他的對手——鄰近的阿斯圖里亞斯-萊昂王國。在接下來的三個世紀(jì)里，這兩個相鄰?fù)鯂g的恩怨被其他穆斯林和基督教統(tǒng)治者成功利用。敵對的納瓦拉王國在824年從加洛林人手中獲得獨立，并決心擴大其邊界。納瓦拉的桑喬三世（Sancho III of Navarre）（1000-35年）利用科爾多瓦哈里發(fā)國的解體，進一步征服了原先穆斯林在半島上的領(lǐng)土，并將卡斯蒂利亞和萊昂（但不是加利西亞）并入他的王國，從而建立了比他任何前任更集中了基督教統(tǒng)治。桑喬三世死后，王國將由他的兒子們分成納瓦拉王國和卡斯蒂利亞王國以及新成立的阿拉貢王國。在14世紀(jì)，納瓦拉被納入法國卡佩王國，直到16世紀(jì)初，納瓦拉還在卡佩王國的掌控之中。

In 930 the count of Castile, Fernán González (r. 930–970), declared his county to be a kingdom, and with the aid of his ally the caliph of Córdoba, he expanded his territories at the expense of his rival, the neighboring AsturLeonese kingdom. Over the next three centuries, enmities between the two neighboring kingdoms were successfully exploited by other Muslim and Christian rulers. The rival Kingdom of Navarre had gained its independence from the Carolingians in 824 and was determined to expand its borders. Sancho III of Navarre (r. 1000–35) took advantage of the disintegration of the Córdoban caliphate to conquer further Muslim territories and to annex Castile and León (but not Galicia) into his kingdom, thus centralizing Christian rule more than any of his predecessors. Upon Sancho’s death, the kingdom would be divided among his sons into the Kingdoms of Navarre and Castile and the newly founded Kingdom of Aragon. In the 14th century Navarre would itself be absorbed into the French Capetian kingdom, in whose possession it would remain until the early 16th century.

? ? ? ? ? 對萊昂領(lǐng)土的另一個威脅來自葡萄牙。葡萄牙北部地區(qū)于868年被維馬拉·佩雷斯伯爵（820-873）從穆斯林手中征服，這里最初是一個依附于阿斯圖里亞斯-萊昂王國的縣城，但在1128年獲得了獨立，并于1249年完成了對南部地區(qū)的征服。從那時起，葡萄牙王國的首要任務(wù)是避免被吸收到重新統(tǒng)一并大幅擴張的卡斯蒂利亞和萊昂王國中。

A further threat to the territorial integrity of León arose from Portugal. Conquered from the Muslims in 868 by Count Vímara Peres (820–873), the northern region of Portugal was initially a county dependent upon the Kingdom of Astur-León but gained its independence in 1128 and completed the conquest of the southern region in 1249. From then on the Portuguese kingdom’s priority was to avoid being absorbed into the reunited and greatly expanded Kingdom of Castile and León.

? ? ? ? ? 此時基督教-伊比利亞仍然被葡萄牙、卡斯蒂利亞和萊昂以及阿拉貢王國分割，但13世紀(jì)見證了走向統(tǒng)一的重要步驟。1195年，柏柏爾人-穆拉比特王朝（阿爾摩拉維德王朝）在西班牙南部的阿拉爾科斯慘敗給卡斯蒂利亞國王阿方索八世（1158-1214年）后，教皇英諾森三世授予其征服者十字軍的地位。最重要的是，卡斯蒂利亞、納瓦拉、葡萄牙和阿拉貢王國聯(lián)合起來，在1212年的拉斯納瓦斯·德·托洛薩會戰(zhàn)中消滅了阿爾摩拉維德軍隊。

Although Christian Iberia was still divided among the Kingdoms of Portugal, Castile and León, and Aragon, the 13th century witnessed important steps toward unity. In the wake of the disastrous defeat at Alarcos in southern Spain that the Berber Almoravids inflicted upon the Castilian king Alfonso VIII (r. 1158– 1214) in 1195, Pope Innocent III granted the Reconquista crusader status. Most significant, the Kingdoms of Castile, Navarre, Portugal, and Aragon joined forces and destroyed the Almohad army at the Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa in 1212.

? ? ? ? ? 拉斯納瓦斯·德·托洛薩會戰(zhàn)是半島統(tǒng)一的一個轉(zhuǎn)折點。阿爾摩拉維德人撤退后出現(xiàn)的權(quán)力真空，使卡斯蒂利亞和阿拉貢的國王能夠大大擴展其各自的王國?？ㄋ沟倮麃唶蹯车夏先溃?217-52年）占領(lǐng)了科爾多瓦（1236年）、穆爾西亞（1243年）、塞維利亞（1248年）和哈恩（1246年），并將剩余的格拉納達穆斯林王國變成了附庸國。同時，阿拉貢國王海梅一世 “征服者”（1213-76年）征服了巴利阿里群島（1228-32）和瓦倫西亞（1238）。15世紀(jì)初，阿拉貢王國在地中海推進其權(quán)力，吞并了西西里島、撒丁島和那不勒斯，形成阿拉貢帝國（或阿拉貢王室）。1469年，卡斯蒂利亞女王伊莎貝爾一世（1451-1504）與阿拉貢的費爾南多二世（1479-1516年）結(jié)婚，確保他們的繼承人將繼承一個統(tǒng)一的王國，這為基督教西班牙的決定性聯(lián)合奠定了基礎(chǔ)。由于他們對十字軍的熱情和反猶太政策，教皇亞歷山大（1492-1503年）授予他們“天主教雙王”（Los Reyes Católicos）的稱號。費爾南多和伊莎貝爾的聯(lián)合軍隊征服了格拉納達，并在1492年簽署了驅(qū)逐猶太人的詔書。

Navas de Tolosa would prove to be a turning point in the unification of the peninsula. The power vacuum that followed the retreat of the Almohads enabled the kings of Castile and Aragon greatly to expand their respective kingdoms: The Castilian king, Ferdinand III (r. 1217–52), captured Córdoba (1236), Murcia (1243), Seville (1248), and Jaen (1246) and converted the remaining Muslim Kingdom of Granada into a vassalage. Simultaneously, the Aragonese king, Jaime I “the Conqueror” (r. 1213–76), conquered the Balearic Islands (1228–32) and Valencia (1238). In the early 15th century, the Kingdom of Aragon advanced its power in the Mediterranean, annexing Sicily, Sardinia, and Naples to form the Aragonese empire, or Crown of Aragon. The die was cast for the decisive union of Christian Spain with the marriage of the Castilian queen Isabella I (1451–1504) to Ferdinand II of Aragon (r. 1479–1516) in 1469, ensuring that their heirs would inherit a United Kingdom. For their crusader zeal and anti-Jewish policies, Pope Alexander (r. 1492–1503) bestowed upon them the epithet the “Catholic kings” (Los Reyes Católicos). With their combined armies Ferdinand and Isabella conquered Granada and signed the edict of the expulsion of the Jews in 1492.

《Handbook To Life in The Medieval World》（2008）

By Madeleine Pelner Cosman and Linda Gale Jones?

未完待續(xù)！