Phoenician architecture is typified by large temples with double-columned facades approached by a short staircase, enclosed sacred spaces containing cube-like and open-fronted shrines, and such large-scale engineering projects as dams and artificial harbours. High fortification walls included square towers and gates, and were built of mud-bricks and limestone, as were more the modest domestic buildings. The paucity of archaeological remains from the period when Phoenician cities were at their height makes general statements dangerous, but it is possible to say that Phoenician architects were relatively austere and sparing in the use of decorative elements both inside and outside their buildings.

? ? ? ? ? 腓尼基建筑的典型特征是具有雙柱式外墻的大型神廟，通過(guò)短小的樓梯連接，封閉的神圣空間包含了立方體式樣及敞開式的神龕，以及諸如水壩和人工港口等大型工程項(xiàng)目。高大的防御墻包括方形塔樓和大門，由泥磚和石灰石建成，更多的是普通的家庭建筑。腓尼基城市處于鼎盛時(shí)期的考古遺跡很少，這使得考據(jù)相對(duì)困難，但可以說(shuō)腓尼基建筑師在建筑內(nèi)外的裝飾元素的使用上相對(duì)簡(jiǎn)易和節(jié)約。

資料來(lái)源

The study of Phoenician architecture is beset by two problems from the outset. Firstly, having access to abundant cedar forests, it is likely the Phoenicians employed wood for most of their buildings, an unfortunate choice for posterity as wood is not, of course, as great a survivor as stonework. The second problem for historians is that Phoenician cities have been in constant occupation throughout their history which makes archaeological excavations problematic. Although very few remains have survived of Phoenician buildings and we know very little of more modest structures such as ordinary housing, we do, though, have descriptions of larger public buildings from such sources as Herodotus, Strabo, Arrian, and the Bible, and some archaeological evidence of smaller shrines both in Phoenicia and its colonies across the Mediterranean.

? ? ? ? ? ? 對(duì)腓尼基建筑的研究從一開始就受到兩個(gè)問(wèn)題的困擾。首先，由于擁有豐富的雪松林，腓尼基人很可能使用木材來(lái)建造他們的大部分建筑，這對(duì)歷史學(xué)家來(lái)說(shuō)是一件不幸的事，因?yàn)槟静漠?dāng)然不像石材那樣具有近乎不朽的生存能力。歷史學(xué)家面臨的第二個(gè)問(wèn)題是，腓尼基人的城市在整個(gè)歷史上一直處于被占領(lǐng)的狀態(tài)，這使得考古發(fā)掘工作變得很困難。盡管腓尼基人的建筑遺跡很少，我們對(duì)普通住房等較為簡(jiǎn)陋的建筑知之甚少，但我們還是從希羅多德、斯特拉波、阿里安和《圣經(jīng)》等資料中得到了對(duì)大型公共建筑的描述，以及在腓尼基及其在地中海沿岸殖民地的一些小型神殿發(fā)現(xiàn)了部分考古證據(jù)。

Another important aid in reconstructing the architecture of the Phoenicians is the fact that their cities were sometimes represented in contemporary Assyrian art, typically scenes of conquest, although the architecture may be schematic, of course. Examples are the bronze gates of Salmanassar III (859-824 BCE) from Balawat and the reliefs of Sennacherib (705-681 BCE) which show scenes of attacks on Tyre. Another source is a 4th-century BCE coin from Sidon. In these art forms, the cities are shown with impressive fortification walls with towers topped by decorative palm sculpture, and houses have multiple floors (perhaps up to six) with two columns outside their entrances.

? ? ? ? ? 重現(xiàn)腓尼基人建筑的另一個(gè)重要幫助是，他們的城市有時(shí)在當(dāng)代亞述藝術(shù)中被表現(xiàn)出來(lái)，通常是征服的場(chǎng)景，當(dāng)然，建筑可能是示意圖。例如，巴拉瓦特的薩爾馬納薩三世（公元前859-824年）的青銅門和西拿基立（公元前705-681年）的浮雕，這些浮雕顯示了對(duì)提爾的攻擊場(chǎng)景。另一個(gè)來(lái)源是公元前4世紀(jì)的一枚西頓硬幣。在這些藝術(shù)形式中，城市有著出令人印象深刻的防御墻，塔樓頂部有裝飾性的棕櫚雕塑，房屋有多層（可能多達(dá)六層），入口外有兩根柱子。

耶路撒冷的所羅門圣殿

A helpful source of information on Phoenician architecture is the Bible's I Kings 6-7 description of King Solomon's temple. This was, of course, built at Jerusalem in the 10th century BCE but the architects and artists involved in its construction were Phoenician and its layout matches temple descriptions at Phoenician sites and the wider region. Its general design shows a significant influence from Egyptian architecture.

? ? ? ? ? 關(guān)于腓尼基建筑的一個(gè)有用的信息來(lái)源是《圣經(jīng)》中對(duì)所羅門王圣殿的描述。當(dāng)然，這是公元前10世紀(jì)在耶路撒冷建造的，但參與建造的建筑師和藝術(shù)家是腓尼基人，其布局與腓尼基遺址和更廣泛地區(qū)的神廟描述相吻合。它的總體設(shè)計(jì)反映了埃及建筑對(duì)腓尼基建筑有著重要影響。

The rectangular temple had three inner chambers, each on progressively higher levels, with the rear two being connected by a short flight of steps. The third square room at the back was where the Ark of the Covenant was said to have been kept. The temple door was approached by a flight of steps and flanked by two columns, described in the Bible as bronze, by Herodotus as one made of gold and another of emerald. In front of the temple, in a sacred courtyard, was a set a huge bronze bowl described as a 'molten sea' because of its prodigious size and an altar for sacrifices and offerings. Destroyed by Nebuchadnezzar II in the 6th century BCE, there are no archaeological remains of the temple.

? ? ? ? ? 這座長(zhǎng)方形的寺廟有三個(gè)內(nèi)室，每個(gè)內(nèi)室都在逐漸升高的層面上，后面的兩個(gè)內(nèi)室由一段短的臺(tái)階連接。后面的第三個(gè)方形房間據(jù)說(shuō)是存放約柜的地方。殿門由一段臺(tái)階連接，兩側(cè)有兩根柱子，《圣經(jīng)》中描述為銅制柱子，希羅多德認(rèn)為是金制的，另一根是鑲嵌著綠寶石的。在圣殿前面有一座神圣的院子，里面有一個(gè)巨大的青銅碗，由于其巨大的尺寸，被人們描述為 "熔化的海洋"，還有一個(gè)用于祭祀和供品的祭壇。該神廟于公元前6世紀(jì)被尼布甲尼撒二世毀壞，現(xiàn)在沒有任何關(guān)于這座神廟的考古遺跡。

提爾城的梅爾卡特神廟

The temple of Melqart at Tyre, of which no remains have been found, was built during the reign of Hiram in the 10th century BCE (the king built similar temples to Astarte and Baal Shamem too). It was described by Herodotus in Book 2:44 of his Histories. The 5th-century BCE Greek historian tells us that there were two columns at the entrance, made from the same material as those at Solomon's temple. The columns may each have been topped with a Proto-Aeolic capital (fore-runner of the Ionic capital and itself influenced by Egyptian architectural motifs) examples of which have been found on Cyprus and other Levant sites and which is considered a Phoenician invention. The flooring of the temple probably used alabaster slabs to create decorative patterns. Herodotus goes on to say that the god and mythical founder of Tyre Melqart had his tomb within the temple which also functioned as the city's treasury.

? ? ? ? ? 人們至今沒有發(fā)現(xiàn)任何關(guān)于提爾的梅爾卡特神廟的痕跡，它是在公元前10世紀(jì)希蘭統(tǒng)治時(shí)期建造的（國(guó)王也為阿斯塔特和巴勒-沙姆建造了類似的神廟）。希羅多德在他的《歷史》第二卷第44節(jié)中描述了這座神廟。這位公元前5世紀(jì)的希臘歷史學(xué)家告訴我們，入口處有兩根柱子，用與所羅門神廟相同的材料制成。這兩根柱子的頂部可能都有一個(gè)原愛奧尼亞式的大寫字母（愛奧尼亞式大寫字母的前身，本身受到埃及建筑圖案的影響），在塞浦路斯和其他黎凡特遺址中發(fā)現(xiàn)了這種字母，它被認(rèn)為是腓尼基人創(chuàng)造的。神廟的地板可能使用雪花石板來(lái)作裝飾圖案。希羅多德說(shuō)，提爾的神和神話中的創(chuàng)始人梅爾卡特的墳?zāi)咕驮谏駨R里，它也是城市的財(cái)庫(kù)。

Unlike in later Greek and Roman temples, the Phoenicians seem not to have created large sculptural likenesses of their gods; the practice may even have been prohibited. Rather, at his temples, Melqart was represented by an eternal fire, a symbol of regeneration. Outside the temple was a specially constructed altar where worship of Melqart was performed involving prayers, burning incense, the pouring of libations, and making offerings to the god of animal sacrifices, foodstuffs, and precious goods. It is thought that the temple of Melqart at Phoenicia's most successful colony Carthage was very similar in design. Another temple at Gades (Cadiz) also had two columns at its entrance, this time made of bronze.

? ? ? ? ? 與后來(lái)的希臘和羅馬神廟不同，腓尼基人似乎沒有為他們的神建造大型雕塑像；這種做法在當(dāng)時(shí)甚至可能被禁止。相反，在神廟里，梅爾卡特是由一個(gè)永恒的火來(lái)代表的，這是一種再生的象征。寺廟外有一個(gè)專門建造的祭壇，在那里對(duì)梅爾卡特進(jìn)行崇拜，包括祈禱、燒香、灌酒，以及向神獻(xiàn)上動(dòng)物祭品、食品和貴重物品。人們認(rèn)為腓尼基最成功的殖民地迦太基的梅爾卡特神廟在設(shè)計(jì)上非常相似。加的斯（Cadiz）的另一座神廟在其入口處也有兩根柱子，這兩根柱子是用青銅制成的。

托菲特與墳?zāi)?/strong>

The tophet was a large enclosure with a sacrificial altar and tombs for the cremated remains of victims. No archaeological remains survive of a tophet in Phoenicia itself but references in ancient sources and their presence in several Phoenician colonies would suggest there likely was such a place in each of the Phoenician home cities. Tophets were located outside and to the north of cities. Aside from the occasional infant sacrifice for which the Phoenicians have become infamous, animals were sacrificed and foodstuffs offered. Votive columns made from wood (aserah) or stone (betyl) were also placed upon sacrificial altars. These were inscribed with prayers and decorated in festivals with flowers and tree boughs.

? ? ? ? ? 托菲特是一個(gè)很大的圍墻，圍著祭壇和存放逝者遺體的墳?zāi)埂ｋ枘峄旧頉]有考古遺跡，但古代資料中的記載和幾個(gè)腓尼基殖民地的存在表明，在每個(gè)腓尼基人的家鄉(xiāng)都可能有這樣一個(gè)地方。托菲特位于城市的外面和北部。除了腓尼基人偶爾因嬰兒獻(xiàn)祭而臭名昭著外，還有動(dòng)物獻(xiàn)祭和食品獻(xiàn)祭。用木頭（aserah）或石頭（betyl）制成的祭祀柱也被放置在祭壇上。這些柱子上刻有祈禱詞，并在節(jié)日里用鮮花和樹枝進(jìn)行裝飾。

Ashes from the sacrifices made at the tophet were placed in an urn. Stones were then placed on top of the funerary urns to seal them and placed within the tophet, sometimes within shaft tombs or dromos tombs built into a low hill-mound and accessed by descending steps. Shaft tombs, which were undecorated, could be quite large - several metres deep, and accessed by a vertical shaft or corridor. An example is the tomb of Ahiram at Byblos which has an entrance shaft, gallery, and chamber for the sarcophagus. In the later Persian dominated-era monuments were constructed above ground to mark the tombs. These are known as meghazils and consist of one or two cylinders topped by a dome or pyramid and with four lions at the base. From the 6th century BCE, stelae were dedicated to Baal or Tanit and placed on top of the funeral urns instead of stones. Many stelae have an inscription which describes a human blood sacrifice or the substitution of a sheep for a child.

? ? ? ? ? 在托菲特舉行的祭祀活動(dòng)的灰燼被放置在一個(gè)甕中。然后，石頭被放置在墓穴的頂部，以密封它們，并被放置在頂蓋內(nèi)，有時(shí)被放置在豎井墓或Dromos墓中，這些墓建在低矮的山丘上，通過(guò)下行的臺(tái)階進(jìn)入。豎井墓沒有任何裝飾，可能相當(dāng)大——深達(dá)數(shù)米，通過(guò)一個(gè)垂直豎井或走廊進(jìn)入。一個(gè)典型的例子是比布魯斯的阿希蘭墓，它有一個(gè)入口豎井、走廊和石棺室。在后來(lái)波斯人主導(dǎo)的時(shí)代，人們?cè)诘孛嫔辖ㄔ炝思o(jì)念碑來(lái)標(biāo)記墳?zāi)?。這些被稱為Meghazils，由一個(gè)或兩個(gè)圓柱體組成，頂部有一個(gè)圓頂或金字塔，底部有四個(gè)獅子。從公元前6世紀(jì)開始，石碑被獻(xiàn)給巴勒或塔尼特，并被放置在喪葬甕的頂部，取代了原先的石頭。許多石碑上都有銘文，描述了人血祭或用羊代替孩子的情況。

祠廟

Unlike the larger buildings of the Phoenicians, many small shrines have survived at such sites as Sidon and Amrit. The 5th-century BCE shrine at Amrit was set in a large sacred precinct which was enclosed on three sides by a portico with square pillars. In the precinct was set a very large stone basin filled with water, in the centre of which was placed the cube-shaped chapel which had an open front and probably contained a cult figure or symbol. The chapel rested on a short column of blocks and platform and may have been topped with a solar disk. A second type of Phoenician shrine was at the 'high places' mentioned in the Bible which were merely dedicatory stelae set on a low base and found on mountain peaks.

? ? ? ? ? 與腓尼基人的大型建筑不同，在西頓和阿姆利特等地，有許多小型神殿幸存下來(lái)。公元前5世紀(jì)阿姆利特的神殿位于一個(gè)大的圣地內(nèi)，三面由帶方形柱子的門廊圍住。院內(nèi)有一個(gè)非常大的石盆，里面裝滿了水，盆中央有一個(gè)長(zhǎng)方體的小教堂，小教堂的正面是開放的，里面可能有一個(gè)崇拜者的形象或符號(hào)。禮拜堂坐落在一個(gè)由石塊和平臺(tái)組成的短柱上，頂部可能有一個(gè)太陽(yáng)盤。第二種類型的腓尼基神龕是在《圣經(jīng)》中提到的 "高處"，這只是設(shè)置在低基座上的奉獻(xiàn)性石碑，人們?cè)谏椒迳习l(fā)現(xiàn)了它。

防御工事與港口

Other known structures built by Phoenician architects, besides the above mentioned, include large dams and bridges. For these structures huge stone blocks were used and their remains can still be found at the sites of Sidon, Tyre, and Aradus. Dependent as the Phoenicians were on sea-trade, they also constructed artificial harbours (cothons) consisting of rectangular docks carved out from the natural rock and accessed by narrow canals, of which surviving examples are best seen at colony sites, notably Carthage.

? ? ? ? ? 除了上面提到的，腓尼基建筑師建造的其他已知建筑包括大型水壩和橋梁。這些建筑使用了巨大的石塊，在西頓、提爾和阿拉杜斯的遺址中仍然可以發(fā)現(xiàn)它們的痕跡。由于腓尼基人依賴海上貿(mào)易，他們還建造了人工港口（cothons），包括從天然巖石中鑿出的長(zhǎng)方形碼頭，并通過(guò)狹窄的運(yùn)河進(jìn)入，其中幸存的例子在殖民地遺址，特別是迦太基，最容易看到。

The city fortifications seen in Assyrian art are confirmed by excavations at Byblos, which have revealed massive ramparts punctuated by towers and gates. Dating to the middle Bronze Age these walls were constructed with stone foundations and mud-brick superstructures. There were also corridor-like gates which led to the sea, using stepped ramps. Similar fortification foundations have been excavated at Beirut and, on a smaller scale, at Tel Kabri.

? ? ? ? ? 在比布魯斯進(jìn)行的發(fā)掘證實(shí)了亞述藝術(shù)中的城市防御工事，這些發(fā)掘發(fā)現(xiàn)了由塔樓和城門點(diǎn)綴的巨大城墻。這些城墻可以追溯到青銅時(shí)代中期，是用石頭地基和泥磚上層建筑建成的。還有類似于走廊的大門，通過(guò)階梯式的斜坡通向大海。在貝魯特和規(guī)模較小的泰爾卡布里也挖掘出了類似的防御工事地基。

城市住宅

Surviving examples of urban housing are few and far between. In the Early Bronze Age, Byblos had oval houses and rectangular ones with rounded corners. In the Middle Bronze Age, there are large rectangular buildings dotted around the narrow streets of the city in no apparent pattern. These did not contain interior partition walls, and their purpose is unknown. In addition, there were silo buildings made in the shape of a bottle. Other smaller buildings show evidence of being paved with limestone and possess stone channels underneath for drainage. Within these domestic dwellings were ovens and basalt stones for grinding wheat. Buildings were constructed with carved stones and wood (olive, oak, and strawberry) or employed mud-bricks supported by dressed stones placed at corners. There is little evidence of town planning at Phoenician sites where local topography usually dictates the orientation of buildings.

? ? ? ? ? 現(xiàn)存的城市住房的遺跡很少。在青銅時(shí)代早期，比布魯斯有橢圓形的房屋和帶圓角的長(zhǎng)方形房屋。在青銅時(shí)代中期，有一些大型的長(zhǎng)方形建筑點(diǎn)綴在城市的狹窄街道上，沒有明顯的模式。這些建筑不包含內(nèi)部的隔墻，其目的也不清楚。此外，還有以瓶子為形狀的筒倉(cāng)建筑。其他較小的建筑有證據(jù)表明是用石灰石鋪成的，下面有用于排水的石槽。在這些家庭住所中，有烤爐和用于研磨小麥的玄武巖石頭。建筑物是用雕刻的石頭和木頭（橄欖樹、橡木和草莓）建造的，或者使用泥磚，由放置在角落里的石塊支撐。在腓尼基遺址，幾乎沒有城市規(guī)劃的證據(jù)，當(dāng)?shù)氐牡匦瓮ǔQ定了建筑物的方向。

參考書目：

Aubet, M.E. The Phoenicians and the West. Cambridge University Press, 2001.

Kenrick, J. Phoenicia. Forgotten Books, 2015.

Moscati, S. The World of the Phoenicians Paperback. Weidenfeld & Nicolson History, 2016.

Rawlinson, G. History of Phoenicia. Forgotten Books, 2008.

Steiner, M.L. et al. The Oxford Handbook of the Archaeology of the Levant. Oxford University Press, 2014.

Strassler, R.B. The Landmark Herodotus. Anchor Books, 2009.

Zondervan. Holy Bible, King James Version. Zondervan, 2010.

作者：Mark Cartwright

? ? ? ? ? 駐意大利的歷史作家。他的主要興趣包括陶瓷、建筑、世界神話和發(fā)現(xiàn)所有文明的共同思想。他擁有政治哲學(xué)碩士學(xué)位，是《世界歷史百科全書》的出版總監(jiān)。

原文網(wǎng)址：

https://www.worldhistory.org/Phoenician_Architecture/

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