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【簡譯】中世紀(jì)的衛(wèi)生狀況

2023-09-17 19:44 作者:神尾智代 0人讀過 | 我要投稿

People in the Middle Ages have acquired something of a bad reputation when it comes to cleanliness, especially the peasantry. However, despite the general lack of running water and other modern amenities, there were common expectations of personal hygiene such as regularly washing from a basin, especially the hands before and after eating which was regarded as good etiquette in a period when cutlery was still a rarity for most people. The better off had the possibility of more frequent baths and castles, manors, monasteries, and cities offered their residents better toilets with better drainage, and sometimes even had running water using the ancient combination of cisterns and gravity. Naturally, standards of hygiene varied over time and place, and even, of course, between individuals, just as today; what follows examines the general habits and expectations regarding hygiene in medieval Europe.

? ? ? ? ? 中世紀(jì)的人們，尤其是農(nóng)民，在個人清潔方面的名聲不太好。然而，盡管普遍缺乏自來水和其他現(xiàn)代便利設(shè)施，人們對個人衛(wèi)生還是有著共同期望，比如飯前便后用盆子洗手，這在餐具對大多數(shù)人來說還很稀有的時代被視為一種良好的禮儀。條件較好的人可以更頻繁地洗澡，城堡、莊園、修道院和城鎮(zhèn)也為居民提供了排水系統(tǒng)更好的廁所，有時甚至利用古老的蓄水池與重力相結(jié)合的方式輸送自來水。當(dāng)然，衛(wèi)生標(biāo)準(zhǔn)因時間和地點(diǎn)而異，甚至因人而異，就像今天一樣；下文將探討中世紀(jì)歐洲的一般衛(wèi)生習(xí)慣和人們的期望。

水? ? ?源

Water was available in villages from nearby springs, rivers, lakes, wells and cisterns. Indeed, most settlements had developed where they had precisely because of the proximity of a reliable water source. Castles might be situated for the same reason and were provided with additional water from masonry-lined wells sunk into their interior courtyards, sometimes accessible from within the castle keep for extra security when under attack. Of over 420 castles surveyed in the United Kingdom, 80% were provided with a well in their interiors and one quarter had two or more. The shaft of the well could be extremely deep: the one at Beeston Castle in England measures 124 m. Some castles, such as the one at Rochester in England, even had the possibility to draw up water from the well at every level of the keep using a system of buckets and ropes which ran inside the walls. Cisterns collected rainwater or natural ground seepage and sometimes a castle might have a system of lead, wooden or ceramic pipes which carried water from a cistern to other, lower parts of the castle like the keep or kitchens, as at Chester Castle in England. Another system of supplementary water collection was to have pipes on the roofing to drain rainwater into a cistern. Finally, settling tanks were sometimes employed to improve the quality of the water by allowing sediment to settle before the cleaner water was drained off. Many monasteries would also have had some or all of these features.

? ? ? ? ? 村莊里的水來自附近的泉水、河流、湖泊、水井和蓄水池。事實上，大多數(shù)定居點(diǎn)正是因為靠近可靠的水源才得以發(fā)展起來的。城堡的選址可能也是出于同樣的原因，城堡內(nèi)部庭院中的砌石水井為城堡提供了額外的水源，有時還可以從城堡內(nèi)部進(jìn)入水井，以便在受到攻擊時提供額外的安全保障。在英國調(diào)查的420多座城堡中，80%的城堡內(nèi)部都有一口水井，四分之一的城堡有兩口或更多水井。有些城堡，如英格蘭的羅切斯特城堡（Rochester Castle），甚至可以在城墻內(nèi)的每一層，使用水桶和繩索系統(tǒng)從井中取水。蓄水池收集雨水或自然滲出的地下水，有時城堡可能會借助鉛管、木管或陶瓷管系統(tǒng)，將水從蓄水池輸送到城堡的其他低層部分，如城堡主樓 (Keep)或廚房（例如英格蘭的切斯特城堡（Chester Castle））。另一種輔助集水系統(tǒng)是在屋頂上安裝的管道，管道將雨水排入蓄水池。有時會使用沉淀池來改善水質(zhì)，讓沉淀物沉淀后再排出較干凈的水。許多修道院也有這些功能。

As towns grew in number and size across Europe from the 11th century CE onwards so hygiene became more and more of a daily challenge. Fortunately, many of the larger towns tended to be situated near rivers or coastlines in order to facilitate trade, so the supply of water and the disposal of waste was less problematic in these places. Canals, water conduits, wells and fountains provided (relatively) fresh water to the urban populace. These were maintained by town councils who also imposed sanitary measures on local businesses and the population in general. For example, there was often an obligation to clean the portion of the street directly in front of one's house or shop. Towns and cities might have public baths; Nuremberg, which seems to have been one of the cleanest towns in Europe thanks to its enlightened council, had 14 of them. Local authorities also undertook such emergency measures as removing the dead during times of plague.

? ? ? ? ? 自公元11世紀(jì)起，隨著歐洲城鎮(zhèn)數(shù)量和規(guī)模的不斷增長，衛(wèi)生問題逐漸成為一項日常挑戰(zhàn)。幸運(yùn)的是，為了促進(jìn)貿(mào)易，許多較大的城鎮(zhèn)往往靠近河流或海岸線，因此這些地方的供水和廢物處理問題較少。運(yùn)河、水渠、水井和噴泉為城市居民提供（相對）淡水。這些設(shè)施由市鎮(zhèn)委員會負(fù)責(zé)維護(hù)，市鎮(zhèn)委員會還對當(dāng)?shù)仄髽I(yè)和普通民眾實施相應(yīng)的衛(wèi)生措施。例如，人們通常有義務(wù)清掃自家房屋或商店門前的街道。城鎮(zhèn)可能會有公共浴池；紐倫堡似乎是當(dāng)時歐洲最干凈的城鎮(zhèn)之一，這要?dú)w功于其開明的議會，紐倫堡有14個公共浴池。地方當(dāng)局還采取了一些緊急措施，如在瘟疫期間清理死者遺體。

個人衛(wèi)生

As running water was very rare, and considering it took such a physical effort to get one bucketful from a well or nearby water source, it is perhaps not surprising that taking a full bath every day was not a feasible option for most people. Indeed, with baths seen as a luxury given the cost of fuel to heat the water, monks, for example, were typically prohibited from taking more than two or three baths in a year. For those who had a bath, it most often took the form of a wooden half-barrel or tub. Even then it would not have been filled very much but most of the 'bathing' was done using a jug of heated water poured over the body rather than a full immersion. A lord might have a padded bath for extra comfort and he usually travelled with one, such was the uncertainty of finding the convenience on one's travels. The vast majority of people, though, would have made do with a quick swill using a basin of cold water. As 80% of the population did physically demanding jobs working the land it is likely that washing of some kind was done on a daily basis.

? ? ? ? ? 鑒于自來水（活水，流動的水）非常稀缺，并且考慮到從井或附近水源打水需要耗費(fèi)很多體力，因此對于大多數(shù)人來說，每天洗個完整的澡不是一個可行的選擇也就不足為奇了。事實上，由于加熱水的燃料費(fèi)用昂貴，洗澡被視為一種奢侈，例如，修士們通常被禁止在一年中洗澡超過兩到三次。對于那些有浴室的人來說，浴室通常是一個木制的半桶或浴缸。即使是這樣，浴缸也不會裝得很滿，但大多數(shù)人“洗澡”都是用一壺加熱的水澆在身上，而不是完全浸泡在水中。領(lǐng)主可能會有一個帶墊子的浴缸，以增加舒適度，他通常會帶著一個浴缸旅行，因為在旅行中很難找到這種方便的浴缸。不過，絕大多數(shù)人都會用一盆冷水快速洗個澡。由于80%的人從事的都是體力活，因此他們可能每天都會以某種方式洗澡。

Medieval peasants have long been the butt of jokes regarding hygiene, which goes back to medieval clerical tracts which often described them as little more than brutish animals; however, it was common practice for just about everyone to wash the hands and face in the morning. An early wash was also desirable because fleas and lice were a common problem. Rarely-changed straw bedding was a particular paradise for vermin even if some preventative measures were taken such as mixing herbs and flowers like basil, chamomile, lavender and mint into the straw.

? ? ? ? ? 中世紀(jì)農(nóng)民的衛(wèi)生狀況一直是人們的笑柄，這可以追溯到中世紀(jì)的教士小冊子，這些小冊子經(jīng)常把農(nóng)民描述成野蠻動物；然而，幾乎每個人都有在早上洗手洗臉的習(xí)慣。因為跳蚤和虱子是常見的問題，所以早洗也是可取的。即使采取了一些預(yù)防措施，如在稻草被褥中摻入羅勒、洋甘菊、薰衣草和薄荷等草藥和鮮花，但很少更換的稻草被褥也是害蟲的天堂。

As most people ate meals without knives, forks or spoons, it was also a common convention to wash hands before and after eating. Soap was sometimes used and hair was washed using an alkaline solution such as the one obtained from mixing lime and salt. Teeth were cleaned using twigs (especially hazel) and small pieces of wool cloth. Shaving was either not done at all or once a week unless one was a monk, in which case one was shaved daily by a brother. As medieval mirrors were still not very large or clear, it was easier for most people to visit the local barber when required.

? ? ? ? ? 由于大多數(shù)人吃飯時不用刀叉或勺子，因此飯前便后洗手也是一種慣例。有時他們使用肥皂或堿性溶液（例如通過混合石灰和鹽獲得的溶液）洗頭。用樹枝（尤其是榛子）和小塊羊毛布清潔牙齒。剃須要么根本不剃，要么一周剃一次，除非是修道士，在這種情況下，修道士每天都要剃須。由于中世紀(jì)的鏡子還不是很大，也不是很清晰，所以大多數(shù)人在需要的時候去當(dāng)?shù)氐睦戆l(fā)店理發(fā)會比較方便。

The ordinary peasant was probably more concerned with getting rid of the day's grime when they washed but for an aristocrat there were a few more details to be attended to in order to gain favour in polite society. Social occasions like meals, when one might get up close and personal to one's peers, warranted particular attention to hygiene and there were even rules of etiquette produced as helpful guides for the unimaginative diner, as here from the Les Countenance de Table:

? ? ?…and let your fingers be clean, and your fingernails well-groomed.

? ? ?Once a morsel has been touched, let it not be returned to the plate.

? ? ?Do not touch your ears or nose with your bare hands.

? ? ?Do not clean your teeth with a sharp iron while eating.

? ? ?It is ordered by regulation that you should not put a dish to your mouth.

? ? ?He who wishes to drink must first finish what is in his mouth.

? ? ?And let his lips be wiped first.

? ? ?Once the table is cleared, wash your hands, and have a drink.(Singman, 154)

? ? ? ? ? 普通農(nóng)民可能更關(guān)心的是如何在洗漱時除去一天的污垢，但對于貴族來說，要想在彬彬有禮的社會中獲得青睞，還需要注意一些細(xì)節(jié)。在用餐等社交場合，人們可能會與同伴近距離接觸，因此需要特別注意衛(wèi)生，甚至還有一些禮儀規(guī)則，為缺乏想象力的用餐者提供有益的指導(dǎo)，如《餐桌禮儀》（Les Countenance de Table）：

? ? ?......手指要干凈，指甲要修剪整齊。

? ? ?一旦咬過食物，就不要再放回盤子里。

? ? ?不要用手觸摸耳朵或鼻子。

? ? ?吃飯時不要用餐具清潔牙齒。

? ? ?按規(guī)定，不得將盤子放在嘴邊。

? ? ?想喝酒的人，必須先把嘴里的東西吞咽完。

? ? ?首先擦拭嘴唇。

? ? ?收拾好餐桌后，洗凈雙手，然后喝一杯。

Monks had their own special areas for washing, including at Cluny Abbey in France which had a lavabo or large basin where hands were washed before meals. We know from records that they had towels, which were changed twice a week while the water was changed only once a week. The Great Hall of a castle or manor typically had a similar large basin for visitors to wash their hands.

? ? ? ? ? 修士們有自己專門的盥洗區(qū)，在法國的克呂尼修道院，有一個盥洗室或大水盆，他們在飯前要洗手。我們從記錄中得知，通常備有毛巾，每周更換兩次，而水每周只換一次。城堡或莊園的大廳通常也有一個類似的大盆，供訪客洗手。

In summary, then, it is safe to say that the common presentation in modern films and books of filthy medieval peasants who regarded washing as some form of torture is perhaps not quite accurate and people of all classes did keep themselves as clean as their circumstances permitted. Nevertheless, it is also true that when medieval Europeans, even those of the higher classes, made contact with other cultures such as the Byzantines or the Muslims during the Crusades, the Europeans often came off second best in the hygiene stakes.

? ? ? ? ? 總而言之，現(xiàn)代電影和書籍中常見的中世紀(jì)農(nóng)民視洗漱為某種酷刑的骯臟形象也許并不十分準(zhǔn)確，各階層的人們確實在條件允許的情況下盡量保持清潔。盡管如此，當(dāng)中世紀(jì)的歐洲人，甚至是那些較高階層的歐洲人，與其他文明，如拜占庭人或十字軍東征期間的穆斯林接觸時，歐洲人在衛(wèi)生方面的表現(xiàn)往往相形見絀，但這也是事實。

一幅中世紀(jì)手稿插圖，描繪了一月份在莊園舉行的傳統(tǒng)新年盛宴。摘自《Les Très Riches Heures du Duc de Berry》

廁? ? ?所

In villages or on manor estates the peasantry used a cesspit for their own waste, which might then be taken and spread on the fields as a fertiliser. In some cases a small hut provided some privacy and a wooden bench with a hole in it some comfort (as well as reducing the chances of falling into the cesspit). Chamber pots were used at night and then emptied into the cesspit. Without toilet paper, or really paper of any kind, people had to make do with a handful of hay, grass, straw or moss.

? ? ? ? ? 在村莊或莊園里，農(nóng)民將糞便收集起來倒入田里作為肥料。在某些情況下，一間小木屋可以提供一些隱私，一張有洞的木凳可以提供相對舒適的環(huán)境（同時也減少了掉進(jìn)糞坑的幾率）。人們在夜里使用尿壺，然后將其倒入糞坑。由于沒有衛(wèi)生紙或其他物品，人們只能用干草、青草、稻草或苔蘚將就一下。

The toilets in a castle, also known as privies or latrines, were much the same as everywhere else although the waste was channelled down a hole into a cesspit at the foot of the castle walls or into the moat itself (an added defensive feature not much talked about in military history). Sometimes there were two toilets next to each other and these might empty into a channel which was regularly flushed with water from a diverted stream. The same arrangement was common to monasteries where toilets were clustered together. There were 45 such cubicles at Cluny Abbey which also boasted a bathhouse with twelve tubs. Castles might also have triangular-shaped urinals, especially in the tower of the circuit walls.

? ? ? ? ? 城堡中的廁所（也稱為盥洗室或原始廁所 (Latrine)）與其他地方的廁所大致相同，但排泄物會順著一個洞流入城堡城墻腳下的糞坑或護(hù)城河中（這是一項新增的防御功能，但在軍事史中卻鮮有提及）。有時，兩個廁所相鄰，這些廁所的糞便可能會排入一條定期用引流溪水沖洗的渠道。同樣的設(shè)施在修道院也很常見，那里的廁所都集中在一起?？藚文嵝薜涝河?5個這樣的隔間，該修道院還擁有一個有12個浴缸組成的浴室。城堡也有三角形的小便池，尤其是在圍墻的塔樓上。

In towns, the well-off had their own privy in a back-yard or even in the house itself with a channel or chute to drain off waste into the yard. Where the poorer classes lived in greater concentrations households often shared a single outside toilet or a number of toilets with their waste leading to a communal cesspit. Lined with stone, the cesspits also received any other household rubbish and were regularly emptied by a professional labourer dedicated to that specific and unenviable job. There were regulations prohibiting the tipping of waste into the street but these were often ignored and a spell of heavy rain or, even worse, floods, could cause havoc with the town's sanitation system and contaminate the water supply. With towns also packed with horses and donkeys, and farm animals being transported elsewhere or to the butchers, the streets were usually filthy and this combined with the ever-present rats, mice and other vermin meant that urban centres became the ideal breeding grounds for disease.

? ? ? ? ? 在城鎮(zhèn)里，富裕人家在后院甚至在房子里都有廁所，廁所里有一個管道或槽，可以把排泄物排到院子里。在貧困階層居住較為集中的地方，家家戶戶往往共用一個或多個室外廁所，這些糞便被排入公共糞坑。糞坑用石頭鋪成，也收集其他生活垃圾，由專門從事這項艱巨工作的專業(yè)工人定期清掏。有規(guī)定禁止向街道傾倒垃圾，但這些規(guī)定經(jīng)常被忽視，一場大雨或更嚴(yán)重的洪水就會給城鎮(zhèn)的衛(wèi)生系統(tǒng)造成嚴(yán)重破壞，并污染水源。由于城鎮(zhèn)里還擠滿了馬和驢，以及被運(yùn)往其他地方或屠宰場的農(nóng)畜，街道通常都很骯臟，再加上無處不在的老鼠和其他害蟲，這意味著城市中心成了疾病的理想滋生地。

鼠疫與疾病

The Black Death, which peaked from 1347 to 1352 CE, was just one (albeit the deadliest) of many waves of plagues and diseases which hit medieval Europe. Carried by fleas on rats, the bubonic plague killed anywhere between 30% and 50% of the population wherever it took hold. The low standards of medieval hygiene certainly helped it along although there were other factors such as a complete lack of understanding of what caused it and the absence of effective quarantines. It is also important to note that many medieval locations such as Milan and Bohemia survived relatively unscathed, so it is not quite so simple to attribute the spread of plague solely to a lack of hygiene and proper sanitation.

? ? ? ? ? ?黑死病的高峰期是公元1347年至1352年，它只是襲擊中世紀(jì)歐洲的眾多瘟疫和疾病中的一種（盡管是最致命的一種）。鼠疫由老鼠身上的跳蚤傳播，所到之處30%到50%的人死于鼠疫。中世紀(jì)的低衛(wèi)生標(biāo)準(zhǔn)無疑助長了鼠疫的蔓延，盡管還有其他一些因素，如完全不了解鼠疫的病因和缺乏有效的隔離措施。同樣重要的是，許多中世紀(jì)地區(qū)，如米蘭和波西米亞，都相對安然無恙，因此不能簡單地將鼠疫的傳播完全歸咎于缺乏衛(wèi)生和適當(dāng)?shù)姆雷o(hù)設(shè)施。

Besides terrible plagues and epidemics that seemed to spring out of nowhere with alarming regularity, there were often equally deadly dangers lurking in everyday places. Poor food preparation and storage was a particular area of health risk. Epidemics of diarrhoea (ergotism), known in medieval times as Saint Anthony's Fire, were caused by eating rye that had been poisoned by fungi. Skin diseases were particularly prevalent, too, although they may have been caused just as much by poor diet as by uncleanliness.

? ? ? ? ? 除了可怕的瘟疫和流行病似乎經(jīng)常突然出現(xiàn)之外，日常生活中也經(jīng)常潛伏著同樣致命的危險。食物制作和儲存不當(dāng)是健康風(fēng)險的一個特殊領(lǐng)域。腹瀉（麥角中毒）流行病在中世紀(jì)被稱為“圣安東尼之火”，是由食用被真菌毒害的黑麥引起的。皮膚病也特別流行，盡管它們可能是由不良飲食習(xí)慣和不潔造成的。