【簡(jiǎn)譯】羅馬人的磨坊

2022-07-31 12:37 作者:神尾智代 0人讀過(guò) | 我要投稿

The Romans constructed mills for use in agriculture, mining and construction. Around the 3rd century BCE, the first mills were used to grind grain. Later developments and breakthroughs in milling technology expanded their use to crushing ores in mining and such construction activities as cutting wood and marble. Mills became an important part of the Roman economy, decreasing the reliance on human labour, and dramatically increasing productivity and efficiency in many sectors of the Roman economy.

? ? ? ? ? 羅馬人建造了用于農(nóng)業(yè)、采礦和建筑的磨坊。大約在公元前3世紀(jì)，第一批磨坊被用來(lái)磨碎谷物。后來(lái)，磨坊技術(shù)的發(fā)展和突破將其用途擴(kuò)大到采礦中的礦石粉碎以及切割木材和大理石等建筑活動(dòng)。磨坊成為羅馬經(jīng)濟(jì)的一個(gè)重要組成部分，它減少了對(duì)人力的依賴，極大地提高了羅馬許多經(jīng)濟(jì)部門(mén)的生產(chǎn)力和效率。

用于農(nóng) 業(yè) 的磨坊

手推式磨坊

In the agricultural sector, mills allowed for the production of large quantities of flour which was essential to bread production. Before mills were ever invented, humans ground cereals with the use of saddle querns which consisted of a rounded stone pressed manually against a flat stone bed. The first significant innovation in milling came in the late 5th century BCE in Greece, with the introduction of the first milling machine: the Olynthus Mill, also known as the hopper mill. The Olynthus Mill consisted of rectangular-shaped lower and upper stones. The top stone had a long handle and was moved in reciprocal fashion from side to side. The mill also had a hollow cavity (or hopper) with a narrow slot at its centre through which the miller fed the grain.

? ? ? ? ? 在農(nóng)業(yè)部門(mén)，磨坊負(fù)責(zé)生產(chǎn)大量的面粉，這對(duì)面包生產(chǎn)至關(guān)重要。在發(fā)明磨坊之前，人們使用馬鞍式磨坊研磨谷物，馬鞍式磨坊由一塊圓形石頭手工壓在一個(gè)平坦的石床上組成。公元前5世紀(jì)末，希臘出現(xiàn)了第一臺(tái)磨粉機(jī)：Olynthus磨粉機(jī)，也被稱為料斗式磨粉機(jī)，這是磨粉機(jī)的第一個(gè)重大創(chuàng)新。Olynthus磨坊由長(zhǎng)方形的下石和上石組成。上層石塊有一個(gè)長(zhǎng)長(zhǎng)的把手，可以從一側(cè)向另一側(cè)往復(fù)移動(dòng)。磨坊還有一個(gè)中空的空腔（或料斗），其中心有一個(gè)狹窄的槽，磨坊主通過(guò)這個(gè)槽將谷物送入磨機(jī)。

動(dòng) 物驅(qū) 動(dòng) 的磨坊

Rotary mills were an improvement over the Olynthus Mill in that cranks could be attached to a beast for grinding. The animal-driven rotary mill appeared around the 3rd century BCE in Italy, one of the best examples being the Pompeian mill which is often associated with the rise of commercial bakeries. Such Pompeian mills were driven by two donkeys harnessed to a wooden frame. The mill consisted of two parts: the lower stone (the meta) and the upper stone (the catillus), both made of strong volcanic rock. The upper concave and hour-glass shaped catillus was turned by donkeys. It had a hole through its centre and a hopper at its top through which the miller poured the grain. This stone rotated against the lower meta stone which was slightly convex and immobile. The animal-driven rotary mill saved humans from the drudgery of milling and significantly increased the flour output and quality as donkeys could drive the mill for hours at a time.

? ? ? ? ? 旋轉(zhuǎn)式磨坊是對(duì)Olynthus磨坊的改進(jìn)，因?yàn)樗那梢赃B接到動(dòng)物身上，驅(qū)使動(dòng)物帶動(dòng)曲柄進(jìn)行研磨。動(dòng)物驅(qū)動(dòng)的旋轉(zhuǎn)磨坊大約在公元前3世紀(jì)就出現(xiàn)在意大利，最好的例子之一是龐貝磨坊，它通常與商業(yè)面包店的崛起有關(guān)。這種龐貝式磨坊由兩頭驢子驅(qū)動(dòng)，驢子被束縛在一個(gè)木架上。磨坊由兩部分組成：下面的石頭（meta）和上面的石頭（catillus），都是由堅(jiān)固的火山巖制成。上部的凹面和小時(shí)玻璃形狀的磨盤(pán)是由驢子轉(zhuǎn)動(dòng)的。它的中心有一個(gè)孔，頂部有一個(gè)料斗，磨坊主通過(guò)它倒入谷物。這塊石頭相對(duì)于下部的元石旋轉(zhuǎn)，元石是微凸的，不能移動(dòng)。由動(dòng)物驅(qū)動(dòng)的旋轉(zhuǎn)式磨坊將人從繁重的磨坊工作中解救出來(lái)，并大大提高了面粉的產(chǎn)量和質(zhì)量，因?yàn)轶H子可以一次驅(qū)動(dòng)磨坊工作數(shù)小時(shí)。

水力驅(qū) 動(dòng) 的磨坊

The watermill was another significant invention which, according to most historians, came later in the last century BCE, or slightly earlier. In this version of the mill, water striking paddles drove the upper catillus stone with much greater power than had been available from animals. Watermills could therefore produce even greater amounts of flour.

? ? ? ? ? 水磨是另一項(xiàng)重要的發(fā)明，根據(jù)大多數(shù)歷史學(xué)家的說(shuō)法，它出現(xiàn)在公元前最后一個(gè)世紀(jì)，或稍早一些。這種磨坊，水擊槳驅(qū)動(dòng)上顎石，其力量比動(dòng)物的力量大得多。因此，水磨可以生產(chǎn)更多的面粉。

Many engineering challenges had to be solved for their construction. For example, a constant supply of running water was needed, with the ability to turn it off during inspections and repairs. This was addressed with mill-channels, sometimes several kilometres long, with a system of reservoirs and sluice-gates that could limit or cut off the amount of water admitted to the paddle wheels. In some cases, aqueducts rather than canals ensured a constant water supply.

? ? ? ? ? 許多工程方面的挑戰(zhàn)必須為其建設(shè)而解決。例如，需要有持續(xù)的流水，并能在檢查和維修期間將其關(guān)閉。這是用磨坊渠道解決的，有時(shí)長(zhǎng)達(dá)幾公里，有一個(gè)水庫(kù)和水閘系統(tǒng)，它可以限制或切斷進(jìn)入槳葉輪的水量。在某些情況下，水渠確保了持續(xù)的水供應(yīng)。

Another technical challenge was the conversion of the circular movement of the waterwheel to a rotation of the upper catillus or "runner stone" outside the water stream. In the horizontal-wheeled mill version, this movement was transferred directly to the runner stone by means of a vertical shaft. In the vertical-wheeled watermill, the vertical, circular movement of the waterwheel was converted to a horizontal rotation through the use of a right-angle gear. The right-angle gear, invented about 270 BCE, was a transmission system consisting of two cogwheels which increased the velocity of the runner stone, thereby, generating additional power.

? ? ? ? ? 另一個(gè)技術(shù)挑戰(zhàn)是如何將水車(chē)的圓周運(yùn)動(dòng)轉(zhuǎn)換為水流外的上顎或 "流道石 "的旋轉(zhuǎn)。在臥式水車(chē)的版本中，這種運(yùn)動(dòng)通過(guò)一個(gè)垂直軸直接轉(zhuǎn)移到轉(zhuǎn)輪石上。在立輪水車(chē)中，水車(chē)的垂直圓周運(yùn)動(dòng)通過(guò)使用直角齒輪轉(zhuǎn)換為水平旋轉(zhuǎn)。約在公元前270年發(fā)明的直角齒輪是一個(gè)由兩個(gè)齒輪組成的傳動(dòng)系統(tǒng)，它增加了流道石的速度，從而產(chǎn)生了額外的動(dòng)力。

There were three variants of the vertical-wheeled mill:

the undershot mill (water hitting the bottom of the wheel)

the overshot (water hitting the paddles at the top of the wheel)

the breastshot water wheel (water hitting the middle of the wheel)

立磨有三種不同的形式：

? ? ?底輪磨（水打在輪子的底部）。

? ? ?高速水輪（水打在輪子頂部的槳上）

? ? ?前輪水車(chē)（水打在輪子中間）。

The undershot mill was the simplest, earliest, and most common application of the three.

? ? ? ? ? 底輪磨是三者中最簡(jiǎn)單、最早出現(xiàn)和最常見(jiàn)的磨機(jī)。

To justify a watermill's construction costs there had to be a large enough concentration of people (between 200 and 400 inhabitants in the surrounding area). When the population's concentration was even greater than this, clusters of mills were built, such as the Janiculum mills (early 3rd century CE) in Rome or the Barbegal complex (early 2nd century CE) in southern France. At the Barbegal complex, for example, an aqueduct could supply water to sixteen overshot wheels while on the slope of the Janiculum hill in Rome, a large number of mills also used aqueduct water to produce flour on an industrial scale from the 3rd through to the 6th century CE.

? ? ? ? ? 為了證明水磨的建造成本是合理的，必須有足夠多的人口聚集某地（在周?chē)貐^(qū)有200至400名居民）。當(dāng)人口的集中度比這還要高時(shí)，人們就會(huì)建造水車(chē)群，如羅馬的Janiculum水車(chē)（公元3世紀(jì)初）或法國(guó)南部的Barbegal建筑群（公元2世紀(jì)初）。例如，在Barbegal建筑群中，一條水渠可以為16個(gè)輪子供水；而在羅馬的Janiculum山坡上，大量的磨坊也使用水渠水，從公元3世紀(jì)到6世紀(jì)，以工業(yè)規(guī)模展開(kāi)面粉的生產(chǎn)活動(dòng)。

采礦業(yè) 中使用的磨機(jī)

Stamp mills were used in mining to crush ore from deep deposits into small pieces before further processing. The metal ores needed to be crushed down to a pea or walnut size before it could be smelted. At times, the mills were also used in metal working after the completion of the smelting while the metal was red hot. The presence of stone anvils with marks from trip-hammers at Dolaucothi and other ancient Roman mining sites is proof that stamp mills were widely used in this way to pound extracted ore.

? ? ? ? ? 沖壓機(jī)被用于采礦業(yè)，在進(jìn)一步加工前將深層礦藏的礦石粉碎成小塊。金屬礦石在被冶煉之前需要被粉碎成豌豆或核桃大小。有時(shí)，在冶煉完成后，當(dāng)金屬被燒得通紅時(shí)，磨坊也被用于金屬加工。在Dolaucothi和其他古羅馬采礦遺址中出現(xiàn)的帶有絆錘痕跡的石砧，證明了石砧碾壓機(jī)被廣泛用于這種方式來(lái)?yè)v毀開(kāi)采的礦石。

These stamp mills consisted of waterwheels, cams and trip-hammers (mola). They first appeared in Greece around the 3rd century BCE, and then spread across Italy throughout the first century CE. Before this invention, such crushing of ores was done manually, which required a lot of men and effort. As was the case with grain mills, these stamp mills saved greatly on manpower, while also greatly increasing the speed of ore processing. Stamp mills were mostly used in mining applications, but at times were also used to pound and hull grain.

? ? ? ? ? 這些沖壓機(jī)由水車(chē)、凸輪和絆錘（mola）組成。它們最早出現(xiàn)在公元前3世紀(jì)左右的希臘，然后在整個(gè)公元1世紀(jì)傳播到意大利。在這項(xiàng)發(fā)明之前，礦石的粉碎是由人工完成的，需要花費(fèi)大量的人力和精力。如同谷物粉碎機(jī)的情況一樣，這些沖壓式粉碎機(jī)大大節(jié)省了人力，同時(shí)也大大提高了礦石加工的速度。沖壓機(jī)主要用于采礦業(yè)，但有時(shí)也被用來(lái)?yè)v碎谷物和去殼。

Because water powered these stamping machines, aqueducts were often constructed near mining sites. For example, at the Dolaucothi mines in Wales, or in the Rio Tinto in Spain, long aqueducts were built to power a number of such stamp mills. There, aqueduct water was used as well in ore extraction techniques known as "hushing" and "ground sluicing". Some metal ores such as gold needed to be finely ground in order to release the tiny metal particles from surrounding rock, salts and sands. For this purpose, the Romans constructed watermills similar to the previously mentioned agricultural ones, but these had even harder grinding stones.

? ? ? ? ? 水流為這些沖壓機(jī)器提供動(dòng)力，因此在礦區(qū)附近經(jīng)常建造引水渠。例如，在威爾士的Dolaucothi礦，或在西班牙的Rio Tinto，人們建造了長(zhǎng)長(zhǎng)的水渠，為一些這樣的沖壓廠提供動(dòng)力。在那里，水渠的水也被用于被稱為"沖洗"和"地面沖刷"的礦石提取技術(shù)。一些金屬礦石，如黃金，需要進(jìn)行精細(xì)的研磨，以便從周?chē)膸r石、鹽和沙子中脫落出微小的金屬顆粒。為此，羅馬人建造了類似于前面提到的農(nóng)業(yè)磨坊的水磨，但這些水磨的磨石更堅(jiān)硬。

建筑業(yè) 中使用的磨坊

The sawmill was another example of a surprisingly-sophisticated machine which consisted of a reciprocating saw powered by a waterwheel. It could cut large amounts of wood or stone, thereby saving enormous amounts of effort and labour. The waterwheel was connected to a rod linked to one or multiple crank-activated saws. The earliest known sawmill was the Hierapolis mill dating back to 250-300 CE. It was the earliest known machine to use a crank with a connecting rod mechanism. A relief on the sarcophagus of Marcus Aurelius Ammianos (dating back to 250-300 CE), in the ancient city of Hierapolis near modern-day Pamukkale in Turkey, gives a clear representation of how it functioned.

? ? ? ? ? 鋸木機(jī)是另一個(gè)令人驚訝的先進(jìn)機(jī)器的例子，它由水車(chē)驅(qū)動(dòng)的往復(fù)式鋸組成，可以切割大量的木材或石頭，從而節(jié)省大量的精力和勞動(dòng)力。水車(chē)與一個(gè)連接到一個(gè)或多個(gè)曲柄激活的鋸的桿相連。最早的已知鋸木機(jī)是希拉波利斯磨坊，它可以追溯到公元250-300年。它是已知最早的使用曲柄與連桿機(jī)制的機(jī)器。在現(xiàn)代土耳其帕穆卡萊附近的希拉波利斯古城，馬庫(kù)斯·奧雷利烏斯·阿米亞諾斯石棺上的一幅浮雕（可追溯到公元250-300年），清楚地展示了它的功能原理。

Sawmills were also commonly used to cut marble. A Roman poet called Ausonius writes in an epic poem about the river Moselle in Germany in the late 4th century CE and describes the shrieking sound of a water-powered sawmill used to cut marble. These sawmills were also used to cut various other types of stones. Sawmills dating from the 6th century CE were also found in Gerasa (in modern-day Jordan) and Ephesus (in modern-day Turkey). Therefore, it is safe to say that they were used throughout the Roman empire for various uses.

? ? ? ? ? 鋸木廠也常用來(lái)切割大理石。一位名叫Ausonius的羅馬詩(shī)人在一首史詩(shī)中寫(xiě)到了公元4世紀(jì)末日耳曼的摩澤爾河，并描述了用于切割大理石的水力鋸木機(jī)發(fā)出的嘶嘶聲。這些鋸木機(jī)也被用來(lái)切割其他各種類型的石頭。在杰拉薩（位于現(xiàn)代約旦）和以弗所（位于現(xiàn)代土耳其）也發(fā)現(xiàn)了公元6世紀(jì)的鋸木廠。因此，我們可以說(shuō)，它們?cè)谡麄€(gè)羅馬帝國(guó)境內(nèi)都被用于各種用途。

總? ? ?結(jié)

The invention of mechanically-driven milling technology, and later of watermills, decreased reliance on human labour and greatly improved productivity in many sectors of the Roman economy, thereby, improving the daily lives of Romans. Watermills such as the Janiculum mills in Rome allowed for the production of flour and bread on industrial scales. Stamp mills accelerated ore processing at mining sites throughout the empire, while sawmills allowed for marble and other stones to be cut precisely and at record speeds. Roman milling technology progressed from manual to animal-driven rotary mills in the 1st century BCE, and then to the more complex water-powered and crank activated sawmills of the 3rd century CE. Many of the principles used in the construction of these early machines are still applied to modern mill designs today. Such mills are additional examples of the ingenuity, impressive design, and manufacturing skills of the Romans.

? ? ? ? ? 機(jī)械驅(qū)動(dòng)的制粉技術(shù)的發(fā)明，以及后來(lái)水磨的發(fā)明，減少了對(duì)人力的依賴，大大提高了羅馬許多經(jīng)濟(jì)部門(mén)的生產(chǎn)力，從而改善了羅馬人的日常生活。水磨，如羅馬的Janiculum水磨，使面粉和面包的生產(chǎn)達(dá)到了工業(yè)化的規(guī)模。沖壓機(jī)加速了整個(gè)帝國(guó)的采礦場(chǎng)的礦石加工，而鋸木機(jī)使大理石和其他石頭能夠以創(chuàng)紀(jì)錄的速度被精確切割。羅馬磨粉技術(shù)在公元前1世紀(jì)從手工磨到動(dòng)物驅(qū)動(dòng)的旋轉(zhuǎn)磨，然后在公元3世紀(jì)發(fā)展到更復(fù)雜的水力和曲柄驅(qū)動(dòng)的鋸機(jī)。這些早期機(jī)器建造中使用的許多原理在今天仍然適用于現(xiàn)代磨坊設(shè)計(jì)。這些磨坊是羅馬人的聰明才智、令人印象深刻的設(shè)計(jì)和制造技能的又一個(gè)典范。