紡織業(yè)如何受到工業(yè)革命的影響？

? ? ? ? ? 工業(yè)革命之前，紡織業(yè)是一種家庭手工業(yè)，人們大多在家里或小作坊里制作紗線和布料。紡織業(yè)的工業(yè)化意味著機(jī)器取代了人力，大型工廠或磨坊紡紗織布取代了小作坊或家庭紡紗織布。

在工業(yè)革命期間，為什么機(jī)器會(huì)被用于紡織業(yè)？

? ? ? ? ? 工業(yè)革命期間，機(jī)器被用于紡織業(yè)，因?yàn)樗鼈兺ㄟ^(guò)減少勞動(dòng)力成本使生產(chǎn)更快更便宜。

?在工業(yè)革命期間，紡織業(yè)機(jī)械化的積極后果是什么？

? ? ? ? ? 工業(yè)革命期間，紡織業(yè)機(jī)械化的積極后果包括：為蒸汽動(dòng)力機(jī)器提供燃料的采煤業(yè)的繁榮，更多的紡織業(yè)就業(yè)機(jī)會(huì)（盡管大多是非技術(shù)性的），以及更便宜的服裝。

?在工業(yè)革命期間，紡織業(yè)的機(jī)械化產(chǎn)生了哪些負(fù)面影響？

? ? ? ? ? 工業(yè)革命期間，紡織業(yè)機(jī)械化的消極后果包括：被機(jī)器取代的熟練紡織工人失去了工作。紡織廠的工作條件是黑暗、潮濕和危險(xiǎn)的。

During the Industrial Revolution (1760-1840), textile production was transformed from a cottage industry to a highly mechanised one where workers were present only to make sure the carding, spinning, and weaving machines never stopped. Driven by the desire to cut costs, a long line of inventors ensured that machine factories were cheaper, faster, and more reliable than ever before.

? ? ? ? ? 在工業(yè)革命（1760-1840）期間，紡織品生產(chǎn)從家庭手工業(yè)轉(zhuǎn)變?yōu)楦叨葯C(jī)械化的工業(yè)，工人在場(chǎng)只是為了確保梳棉機(jī)、紡紗機(jī)和織布機(jī)永不停歇。在削減成本的驅(qū)動(dòng)下，一大批發(fā)明家確保機(jī)器工廠比以往任何時(shí)候都更便宜、更快、更可靠。

The adoption of machines, typically powered by water wheels and then steam engines, meant that many skilled textile workers lost their employment, which led to protest movements such as those by the Luddites. Although new, less skilled jobs were created, the poor working conditions in the textile mills helped form the trade union movement and spur governments to pass laws that protected the well-being of those who ensured the machines kept on spinning.

? ? ? ? ? 這些機(jī)器的采用通常由水輪驅(qū)動(dòng)，后來(lái)由蒸汽機(jī)驅(qū)動(dòng)，這意味著許多熟練的紡織工人失業(yè)，從而引發(fā)了抗議運(yùn)動(dòng)，如盧爾德運(yùn)動(dòng)。雖然創(chuàng)造了新的、技術(shù)含量較低的工作，但紡織廠惡劣的工作條件也推動(dòng)了工會(huì)的形成，并促使政府通過(guò)法律保護(hù)那些確保機(jī)器繼續(xù)運(yùn)轉(zhuǎn)的人的福祉。

紡織業(yè)的演變

Traditionally, yarn and cloth were bought from spinners and weavers who worked in their own homes or in small workshops. It was common for a family to divide the work, with children washing and then carding the wool, women spinning the yarn using a manual spinning wheel, and men weaving the cloth using a hand-powered loom.

? ? ? ? ? 傳統(tǒng)上，紗線和布料都是從在自己家里或小作坊里工作的紡紗工和織布工那里買來(lái)的。一個(gè)家庭通常會(huì)進(jìn)行分工，孩子們洗滌和梳理羊毛，婦女們用手紡車紡線，男人們用手搖織機(jī)織布。

Production was greatly speeded up in 1733 when John Kay invented the flying shuttle, used to pull thread horizontally (weft) across longitudinal threads (warp) on a weaving frame. The shuttle, knocked across the worked material by a hammer, also permitted wider textiles to be made. The problem now was how to spin more yarn to keep pace with the faster weaving stage. The traditional spinning wheel was an efficient machine but could only spin one thread at a time. Consequently, inventors attempted to create machines that could spin multiple threads simultaneously. This would allow one operator to effectively do the work of several people. In addition, if many machines were all put in one place – a factory or mill – then production costs could be further reduced. As in many other areas of the Industrial Revolution, it was the lure of making more money that drove the move away from manual to machine labour.

? ? ? ? ? 1733年，約翰·凱 (John Kay) 發(fā)明了飛梭，用于在織機(jī)上將紗線水平（緯向）拉過(guò)縱向（經(jīng)向）紗線，生產(chǎn)速度大大加快。用錘子敲擊工作材料的梭子也使制造更寬的織物成為可能。現(xiàn)在的問(wèn)題是如何紡更多的線以跟上更快的編織階段。傳統(tǒng)紡車在當(dāng)時(shí)是一種高效的機(jī)器，但它一次只能紡一根線。因此，發(fā)明家們?cè)噲D創(chuàng)造能夠同時(shí)紡出多條線的機(jī)器。這將使一個(gè)操作員有效地完成幾個(gè)人的工作。此外，如果許多機(jī)器都放在一個(gè)地方，即一個(gè)工廠或磨坊，那么生產(chǎn)成本可以進(jìn)一步降低。與工業(yè)革命的許多其他領(lǐng)域一樣，是賺取更多金錢的誘惑推動(dòng)了紡織業(yè)從手工勞動(dòng)到機(jī)器勞動(dòng)的轉(zhuǎn)變。

There were many inventors and machines that pushed the textile industry forwards during the Industrial Revolution, but the most important include:

The Spinning Jenny by James Hargreaves (1764)

The Water Frame by Richard Arkwright (1769)

The Spinning Mule by Samuel Crompton (1779)

The Power Loom by Edmund Cartwright (1785)

The Cotton Gin by Eli Whitney (1794)

The Roberts' Loom by Richard Roberts (1822)

The Self-Acting Mule by Richard Roberts (1825)

Howe Sewing Machine by Elias Howe (1844)

在工業(yè)革命期間，有許多發(fā)明家和機(jī)器推動(dòng)了紡織業(yè)的發(fā)展，但最重要的包括：

• 詹姆斯·哈格里夫斯 (James Hargreaves) 的珍妮紡紗機(jī)(1764)

• 理查德·阿克萊特 (Richard Arkwright)的水力紡紗機(jī)(1769年)

• 塞繆爾·克朗普頓的“紡紗騾子”（之所以這樣命名是因?yàn)樗前⒖巳R特的水力紡紗機(jī)和詹姆斯·哈格里夫斯的珍妮紡紗機(jī)的混合體，就像騾子是母馬與公驢雜交的產(chǎn)物一樣）(1779)

• 埃德蒙·卡特賴特的動(dòng)力織布機(jī)（1785年）

• 伊萊·惠特尼 (Eli Whitney)?的軋棉機(jī) (1794)

• 理查德·羅伯茨 (Richard Roberts)?的織機(jī)(1822年)

• 理查德·羅伯茨的自力式“紡紗騾子”(1825)

• 埃利亞斯·豪的平縫縫紉機(jī) (1844)

?詹姆斯·哈格里夫斯的珍妮紡紗機(jī)

James Hargreaves (1720-1778) invented the spinning jenny (machine) in Lancashire in 1764 (patented in 1770). The machine – essentially a spinning frame containing multiple spindles – could spin eight cotton threads at the same time, and so the potential to dramatically speed up production and cut labour costs attracted business owners. Hargreaves soon improved his jenny so that a single machine could spin 120 threads simultaneously. This evolution more than made up for the higher cost of a jenny compared to a traditional spinning wheel (70 shillings against one shilling). By 1788, factories across Britain were using over 20,000 spinning jennies. There was no going back to the old cottage industry of isolated workers in their homes, especially as many of the machines used large water wheels for their power.

? ? ? ? ? 詹姆斯·哈格里夫斯（1720-1778）于1764年在蘭開(kāi)夏郡發(fā)明了珍妮紡紗機(jī)（1770 年獲得專利）。這臺(tái)機(jī)器（本質(zhì)上是一個(gè)帶有多個(gè)錠子的紡車）可以同時(shí)紡出八根棉線，因此其大幅提高生產(chǎn)速度和削減勞動(dòng)力成本的潛力吸引了眾多企業(yè)主。哈格里夫斯很快改進(jìn)了他的珍妮機(jī)，使一臺(tái)機(jī)器可以同時(shí)紡出?120 根線。這種演變彌補(bǔ)了珍妮機(jī)更高的成本（70 先令對(duì) 1 先令）。到1788年，英國(guó)各地的工廠已經(jīng)使用了超過(guò)20,000臺(tái)珍妮紡紗機(jī)。過(guò)去那種個(gè)體工人在家里工作的舊家庭手工業(yè)一去不復(fù)返了，特別是許多機(jī)器使用大型水輪作為動(dòng)力。

Traditional textile workers immediately saw the threat of Hargreaves' jenny and smashed any examples they could find and, in some cases, even burnt down factories. Meanwhile, jennies were introduced to France directly from Lancashire from 1771, although they did not quite take off as they had in Britain, despite the French state subsidising their adoption. The reason may be due to wages being lower in France and so the expensive machines were a less attractive proposition for entrepreneurs. The same could also be true for India, where labour was cheaper still and where the jenny was largely ignored.

? ? ? ? ? 傳統(tǒng)的紡織工人很快便意識(shí)到珍妮機(jī)的威脅，他們?cè)宜榱巳魏文苷业降恼淠輽C(jī)，在某些情況下，甚至燒毀了工廠。與此同時(shí)，從1771年起，法國(guó)從蘭開(kāi)夏郡引入珍妮機(jī)，盡管法國(guó)政府為其提供補(bǔ)貼，但它們并沒(méi)有像在英國(guó)那樣完全普及。原因可能是法國(guó)的工資較低，因此昂貴的機(jī)器對(duì)企業(yè)家的吸引力較小。印度的情況也是如此，那里的勞動(dòng)力更便宜，珍妮機(jī)在很大程度上被忽視了。

理查德·阿克萊特的水力紡紗機(jī)

Richard Arkwright (1732-1792), a Lancashire wigmaker, created the first water frame, a device patented in 1769. Arkwright was crucially assisted by his friend John Kay, a clockmaker (not the flying shuttle inventor) who, over a period of five years, helped him perfect the right materials to use in the machine and the gears that made it work efficiently, replacing the more cumbersome system of levers and belts. As the economic historian R. C. Allen notes, "without watch-makers, the water frame could not have been designed" (204). Britain was at the forefront of watchmaking technology, and this again explains why it was here and not in other countries where the early textile machinery was pioneered. Not coincidentally, perhaps, the heart of the British clock industry was in Lancashire, precisely where the mechanised textile industry took off.

? ? ? ? ? 理查德·阿克萊特（Richard Arkwright，1732-1792）?是蘭開(kāi)夏郡的假發(fā)制造商，創(chuàng)造了第一臺(tái)水力紡紗機(jī)，該設(shè)備在1769年獲得了專利。阿克萊特從他的制表師朋友約翰·凱那里得到了至關(guān)重要的幫助（不是飛梭的發(fā)明者），五年來(lái)，制表師約翰·凱幫助他完善了機(jī)器的合適材料和使其高效工作的齒輪，取代了更笨重的杠桿和皮帶系統(tǒng)。正如經(jīng)濟(jì)史學(xué)家羅伯特·卡森·艾倫所指出，“沒(méi)有制表師，就不可能設(shè)計(jì)出水力紡紗機(jī)”（204）。英國(guó)處于制表技術(shù)的最前沿，這再次解釋了為什么早期紡織機(jī)械是在這里而不是在其他國(guó)家開(kāi)創(chuàng)的。也許并非巧合，英國(guó)鐘表業(yè)的中心在蘭開(kāi)夏郡，正是機(jī)械化紡織業(yè)發(fā)展的地方。

Arkwright's water frame was a cotton-spinning machine where rollers performed the task that fingers and thumbs once had. It was an improvement on the spinning jenny since it produced much finer and stronger yarn. An early version was powered by a single horse and could spin 96 spindles at once. As the fully-developed machine in Arkwright's factory in Cromford on the River Derwent (far away from any textile workers for his own safety and that of his machines) was powered by a water wheel, it could run indefinitely and more smoothly than hand-worked machines.

? ? ? ? ??阿克萊特的水力紡紗機(jī)是一種紡棉機(jī)，其中滾筒執(zhí)行以前由手指和拇指完成的工作。它是對(duì)珍妮紡紗機(jī)的改進(jìn)，因?yàn)樗a(chǎn)的線更細(xì)、更結(jié)實(shí)。早期版本由一匹馬提供動(dòng)力，一次可以紡 96 個(gè)錠子。由于阿克萊特在德溫特河上的克羅姆福德工廠中完全開(kāi)發(fā)的機(jī)器（為了他們自身和機(jī)器的安全，遠(yuǎn)離任何紡織工人）是由水輪驅(qū)動(dòng)的，它可以無(wú)限期地運(yùn)行，而且比手工操作的機(jī)器更平穩(wěn)。

The 1771 version of Arkwright's water frame had 129 spindles and was operated by women since skilled male textile workers were no longer needed. The factory model of Cromford with its machines, layout, rationalised production process, provision of power on multiple floors, and full-time operations was copied in factories across the north of England, with Arkwright making a fortune by insisting buyers order no fewer than 1,000 of his machines at a time (or more accurately, the right to build them). The Cromford factory model was copied, too, in the United States and Germany. Arkwright also greatly improved his wealth by inventing a carding machine (patented in 1775), an invention that provided better quality source material for the spinning machines. The carding machine actually cut labour costs far more than the water frame.

? ? ? ? ? 1771年版的阿克萊特水力紡紗機(jī)有129個(gè)紗錠，由于不再需要熟練的男性紡織工人，所以由婦女操作?？肆_姆福德工廠模式，其機(jī)器、布局、流線型生產(chǎn)流程、多工廠供電和全職運(yùn)營(yíng)，在英格蘭北部的工廠中被大量復(fù)刻，阿克萊特堅(jiān)持要求買家一次訂購(gòu)不少于1000臺(tái)他的機(jī)器（或者更準(zhǔn)確地說(shuō)，是建造這些機(jī)器的權(quán)利），從而發(fā)了財(cái)。美國(guó)和德國(guó)也復(fù)制了克羅姆福德工廠模式。阿克萊特還通過(guò)發(fā)明梳棉機(jī)（1775年獲得專利）大大增加了財(cái)富，這項(xiàng)發(fā)明為紡紗機(jī)提供了更優(yōu)質(zhì)的原料。梳棉機(jī)實(shí)際上比水力紡紗機(jī)更能削減勞動(dòng)成本。

塞繆爾·克朗普頓的“紡紗騾子”

Samuel Crompton invented the spinning mule in 1779, an improved combination of Hargreaves' jenny and Arkwright's water frame that made finer and more uniform yarn. The machine could measure up to 46 metres (150 ft) in length and massively increased the number of available spindles. A single machine could have 1,320 spindles but was complex and needed three workers to operate it. The invention was a huge success, and by the 1790s, they were steam-powered. A single factory might have 60 of the machines, and soon there were 50 million mule spindles spinning away in Lancashire.

? ? ? ? ? 塞繆爾·克朗普頓于1779年發(fā)明了紡紗騾子，這是哈格里夫斯的珍妮機(jī)和阿克萊特的水力紡紗機(jī)的改進(jìn)組合，可以制造更細(xì)更均勻的紗線。這種機(jī)器的長(zhǎng)度可達(dá)46米（150英尺），大大增加了可用的錠子數(shù)量。一臺(tái)機(jī)器可以有1320個(gè)錠子，但很復(fù)雜，需要三個(gè)工人來(lái)操作它。這項(xiàng)發(fā)明取得了巨大的成功，到18世紀(jì)90年代，它們都是以蒸汽為動(dòng)力的。一家工廠可能有60臺(tái)這種機(jī)器，很快蘭開(kāi)夏郡就有 5000 萬(wàn)錠紡紗機(jī)。

埃德蒙·卡特賴特的動(dòng)力織布機(jī)

The next development was the power loom weaving machine, invented by Edmund Cartwright (1743-1823) in 1785. Cartwright was a former clergyman, and he was inspired to create the water- and then steam-powered loom after visiting a factory in Derbyshire. The fully automated machine only needed a single worker to change the full spindles every seven minutes or so. Cartwright's machine doubled the speed of cloth production but was not all that efficient; subsequent inventors worked on this problem with success, but Cartwright's theoretical principles were sound, and he himself never stopped improving his invention. The power loom was first used effectively in factories owned by Richard Arkwright. Textile factories across the country soon equipped themselves with hundreds of power looms. The British government awarded Cartwright ￡10,000 in 1809 in thanks for the significant contribution the power loom made to British industry. In 1821, Cartwright was made a Fellow of the Royal Society.

? ? ? ? ? 動(dòng)力織布機(jī)，由埃德蒙·卡特賴特（1743-1823）于1785年發(fā)明。卡特賴特曾是一名牧師，在參觀了德比郡的一家工廠后，他受到啟發(fā)，創(chuàng)造了水力和蒸汽驅(qū)動(dòng)的織機(jī)。這種完全自動(dòng)化的機(jī)器只需要一個(gè)工人每隔7分鐘左右更換一次全部紗錠?？ㄌ刭囂氐臋C(jī)器使布匹生產(chǎn)的速度提高了一倍，但效率卻不盡如人意；后來(lái)的發(fā)明家們?cè)谶@個(gè)問(wèn)題上的努力取得了成功，但卡特賴特的理論原則是合理的，他本人也從未停止過(guò)對(duì)其發(fā)明的改進(jìn)。動(dòng)力織機(jī)首先在理查德·阿克萊特的工廠中得到有效使用。全國(guó)各地的紡織廠很快配備了數(shù)百臺(tái)動(dòng)力織機(jī)。1809年，英國(guó)政府授予卡特賴特10,000英鎊，以感謝動(dòng)力織機(jī)對(duì)英國(guó)工業(yè)做出的重大貢獻(xiàn)。1821年，卡特賴特成為皇家學(xué)會(huì)會(huì)員。

惠特尼的軋棉機(jī)

As the methods of the spinners had to keep up with those of the weavers, so, too, those who supplied the raw cotton had to increase their production to meet the booming demand. Eli Whitney (1765-1825) from Massachusetts, USA, moved to a cotton plantation in Georgia where he created a way to efficiently separate the sticky seeds from cotton balls. Whitney's Cotton Gin ('gin' meaning 'machine') was invented in 1794 and was powered by horses or water wheels. It pulled raw cotton through a comb mesh where a combination of revolving metal teeth and hooks separated it and removed the troublesome seeds. A single cotton gin could process up to 25 kg (55 lbs) of cotton every day. Just like Crompton and Cartwright, Whitney's invention was a victim of its own success and was so widely copied that he made little money from it himself, despite registering it with the patent office. As cotton production rocketed, so more and more slaves were used on the cotton plantations to pick the cotton balls that fed the insatiable gins. Cotton was exported far and wide. In Britain in 1790, cotton accounted for 2.3% of total imports; by 1830, that figure had rocketed to 55%. British textile mills worked the raw material and exported it out again with such success that cotton textiles accounted for half of Britain's total exports in 1830.

? ? ? ? ? 正如紡紗工的方法必須跟上織布工的方法一樣，原棉供應(yīng)商也必須增加產(chǎn)量以滿足不斷增長(zhǎng)的需求。來(lái)自美國(guó)馬薩諸塞州的伊萊·惠特尼（1765-1825）搬到了佐治亞州的一個(gè)棉花種植園，在那里他發(fā)明了一種有效分離粘性種子與棉球的方法?；萏啬岬能埫迿C(jī)（' gin '意為'機(jī)器'）發(fā)明于1794年，由馬或水輪驅(qū)動(dòng)。它它通過(guò)梳狀篩網(wǎng)輸送原棉，旋轉(zhuǎn)金屬齒和鉤子的組合將原棉分開(kāi)并去除麻煩的種子。一臺(tái)軋棉機(jī)每天可以處理多達(dá)25公斤（55磅）的棉花。就像克朗普頓和卡特賴特一樣，惠特尼的發(fā)明成為了他自己成功的犧牲品，盡管他已經(jīng)在專利局注冊(cè)了專利，但他自己只從中賺了很少的錢。隨著棉花產(chǎn)量的飆升，種植園雇用的奴隸數(shù)量也在增加，他們負(fù)責(zé)采摘棉球供給似乎永不停工的軋棉機(jī)。棉花被出口到很遠(yuǎn)很遠(yuǎn)的地方。1790年的英國(guó)，棉花占總進(jìn)口量的2.3%；到1830年，這個(gè)數(shù)字已經(jīng)飆升到55%。英國(guó)紡織廠對(duì)原材料進(jìn)行加工，并再次出口，取得了巨大成功，1830年，棉紡織品占英國(guó)出口總額的一半。

Now, all three branches of the textile industry – raw material production, spinning, and weaving – could be fully mechanised, but still, the search for efficiency and great profits spurred on the inventors. Textile manufacturing was now big business despite the high costs to set up a machine factory, around ￡15,000 in 1793 (over $2 million today). As Allen notes, "Cotton was the wonder industry of the Industrial Revolution" (182).

? ? ? ? ? 紡織工業(yè)的所有三個(gè)分支（原材料生產(chǎn)、紡紗和織布）都完全機(jī)械化，但即便如此，對(duì)效率和高利潤(rùn)的追求仍然刺激著發(fā)明家們。盡管建立一個(gè)機(jī)器工廠的成本很高，在1793 年的成本約為15,000英鎊（今天超過(guò)200萬(wàn)美元），但紡織品制造是大生意。正如艾倫所指出的，“棉花是工業(yè)革命的奇跡產(chǎn)業(yè)”（182）。

羅伯茨的織布機(jī)

The first cast-iron loom powered by steam was invented by Richard Roberts (1789-1864) in 1822. Using iron instead of wood (as in Cartwright's loom) meant that the machine did not warp, and so the tension of the yarns was kept constant. There were now much fewer instances of yarns snapping or becoming so loose they got tangled in the machinery. This meant that the production of woven cloth was faster than ever.

? ? ? ? ? 第一臺(tái)蒸汽動(dòng)力鑄鐵織機(jī)由理查德·羅伯茨 (Richard Roberts, 1789-1864) 于 1822 年發(fā)明。通過(guò)使用鐵代替木頭（如卡特賴特的織機(jī)），機(jī)器不會(huì)翹曲，因此線的張力保持恒定。紗線斷裂或變得松散而被機(jī)器纏住的情況大大減少。這意味著織布機(jī)的生產(chǎn)效率比以前更快。

The inventors kept on improving the machines, both in Britain and in other countries. From the 1790s, the British government prohibited the export of machinery to safeguard its competitive advantage, but, nevertheless, machines were smuggled out and used to set up mills in France, Belgium, and the Netherlands. The machines were more efficient than ever, and this meant that, despite the capital outlay required to acquire them, they became profitable even in places with much lower labour costs than in Britain.

? ? ? ? ? 發(fā)明者們不斷改進(jìn)機(jī)器，在英國(guó)和其他國(guó)家都是如此。從17世紀(jì)90年代起，英國(guó)政府禁止出口機(jī)器，以保障其競(jìng)爭(zhēng)優(yōu)勢(shì)，但盡管如此，機(jī)器還是被走私出去，用于在法國(guó)、比利時(shí)和荷蘭建立工廠。這些機(jī)器比以往任何時(shí)候都更有效率，這意味著，盡管購(gòu)買這些機(jī)器需要資本支出，但即使在勞動(dòng)力成本比英國(guó)低得多的地方，它們也能獲得可觀的利潤(rùn)。

A notable addition to a textile factory's repertoire was the calico (cheap cotton material) printing machine of c. 1780, which permitted patterned textiles to be made using pre-punched cards. The Frenchman Joseph-Marie Jacquard (1752-1834) developed a machine that could create patterned silk fabric around 1800, also using pre-cut cards. The Jacquard loom was adopted almost everywhere textiles were made.

? ? ? ? ? 1780 年左右的印花布（廉價(jià)棉質(zhì)材料）壓花機(jī)使使用預(yù)打孔卡片印刷織物成為可能，這是紡織廠的一項(xiàng)重要工作。法國(guó)人約瑟夫·馬里·雅卡爾（1752-1834）在1800年左右開(kāi)發(fā)了一種可以制作印花絲綢織物的機(jī)器，也是使用預(yù)先切割的卡片。幾乎所有生產(chǎn)布料的地方都采用了提花織機(jī)。

羅伯茨的自力式“紡紗騾子”（自動(dòng)紡紗機(jī)）

Richard Roberts continued to work on mechanised looms, and he came up with something new in 1825. Roberts' creative spirit was perhaps driven by self-interest since, once again, weaving had leapt forward thanks to his loom and spinning could not keep up and supply the yarns the weavers needed. These limited sales of the Roberts Loom. Roberts created a spinning machine that could run with very little input from humans, meaning they could run around the clock. The machine used gears, cranks, and a guide mechanism to ensure that yarn was always placed exactly where it should be and that spindles turned at varying speeds depending on how full they were (hence the machine's 'self-acting' name). Roberts' loom and mule combined provided mill owners with exactly what they had wanted: a factory floor with as few humans in it as possible.

? ? ? ? ? 理查德·羅伯茨繼續(xù)研究動(dòng)力織機(jī)，他在1825年想出了一些新東西。羅伯茨的創(chuàng)造精神也許是受自身利益的驅(qū)使，因?yàn)橛捎谒目棛C(jī)，紡織業(yè)再次飛躍發(fā)展，而紡紗廠卻無(wú)法跟上并供應(yīng)織工所需的紗線。這限制了羅伯茨織機(jī)的銷售。羅伯茨發(fā)明了一臺(tái)紡紗機(jī)，只需很少的人力投入即可運(yùn)行，這意味著它可以一天 24 小時(shí)不間斷運(yùn)行。該機(jī)器使用齒輪、曲柄和導(dǎo)向機(jī)構(gòu)來(lái)確保螺紋始終準(zhǔn)確定位在應(yīng)有的位置，并且主軸根據(jù)它們的負(fù)荷程度以可變速度旋轉(zhuǎn)（因此該機(jī)器被稱為“自動(dòng)”）。羅伯茨的織機(jī)和紡機(jī)相結(jié)合，為工廠主提供了他們想要的東西：少人工廠車間。

By 1835, around 75% of cotton mills were using steam power, and there were well over 50,000 power looms being used in Britain. A steam-powered factory did not need to be located near a water source, so better sites could be chosen close to natural resources like coal. With ever more versatile, cheaper, efficient, and reliable machines, the textile industry had become almost completely automated, certainly to the extent that machine operators no longer needed any textile skills. Skilled workers lost their jobs to semi-skilled labourers, but there were more of the latter than the former thanks to the growth in the textile industry.

? ? ? ? ? 到1835年，大約75%的棉紡廠由蒸汽提供動(dòng)力，英國(guó)有超過(guò)50,000臺(tái)動(dòng)力織機(jī)在使用。以蒸汽為動(dòng)力的工廠不需要靠近水源，因此可以選擇靠近煤炭等自然資源運(yùn)輸更好的地點(diǎn)。隨著越來(lái)越多的多功能、廉價(jià)、高效和可靠的機(jī)器的出現(xiàn)，紡織業(yè)幾乎已經(jīng)完全自動(dòng)化，當(dāng)然，機(jī)器操作員不再需要任何紡織技能。熟練工人的工作被半熟練工人取代，且由于紡織業(yè)的發(fā)展，后者比前者數(shù)量更多。

The British mechanized textile industry could now better its main rival India in production, and so exports boomed. Labour in India was cheap, but the British machines were faster, producing in 2,000 hours what an Indian 'factory' needed 50,000 hours to achieve. In short, the British "cotton mill of 1836 was so efficient that it could out-compete hand spinning anywhere in the world" (Allen, 187).

? ? ? ? ? 英國(guó)的機(jī)械化紡織業(yè)在當(dāng)時(shí)可以在生產(chǎn)上比其主要競(jìng)爭(zhēng)對(duì)手印度更勝一籌，因此出口蓬勃發(fā)展。印度的勞動(dòng)力很便宜，但英國(guó)的機(jī)器速度更快，在2000小時(shí)內(nèi)就能生產(chǎn)出印度“工廠”需要50,000小時(shí)才能完成的產(chǎn)品。簡(jiǎn)而言之，英國(guó)“1836年的棉紡廠是如此高效，以至于它可以在世界任何地方勝過(guò)手紡”（艾倫，187）。

埃利亞斯·豪的平縫縫紉機(jī)

Elias Howe (1819-1867) invented a new type of sewing machine in Cambridge in the United States in 1844 (patented in 1846). It was the first machine to use the lockstitch (where there are two threads put in the cloth, one from below and one from above). The lockstitch made textiles much stronger since even if the thread broke the whole line of stitches did not unravel. The machine was far quicker than a person sewing by hand – 640 stitches per minute compared to the average of 23 by hand. Consequently, "a calico dress took around six and a half hours to make by hand but just under an hour by machine. The clothing industry was completely revolutionised" (Forty, 149). There were soon imitation companies, notably that owned by Isaac Merritt Singer, who was obliged to pay royalties to Howe and give him a share in I. M. Singer and Co., a company which went on to become one of the leading sewing machine manufacturers, selling some half a million machines each year by 1870. Howe kept on developing his idea, making smaller machines and adding a power source from a foot pedal, which meant that the textile industry went full circle, and once again, people had the opportunity to produce clothes and other textiles in their own homes.

? ? ? ? ? 埃利亞斯·豪（1819-1867）于1844年在美國(guó)劍橋發(fā)明了一種新型縫紉機(jī)（1846年獲得專利）。這是第一臺(tái)使用平縫的機(jī)器（在布上有兩根線，一根在下面，一根在上面）。鎖眼線使紡織品更加牢固，因?yàn)榧词咕€斷了，整條線也不會(huì)解開(kāi)。機(jī)器比手工縫紉快得多：每分鐘 640 針，而手工平均為 23 針。因此，“手工制作一件印花布連衣裙大約需要六個(gè)半小時(shí)，而機(jī)器只需不到一個(gè)小時(shí)，服裝業(yè)徹底發(fā)生了革命性變化”（Forty，149）。很快就出現(xiàn)了一些模仿的公司，特別是艾薩克·梅瑞特·辛格（Isaac Merritt Singer）的公司，他不得不向豪（Howe）支付版稅，并在I. M. Singer and Co.公司中給他股份，這家公司后來(lái)成為領(lǐng)先的縫紉機(jī)制造商之一，到1870年每年銷售約50萬(wàn)臺(tái)機(jī)器。豪繼續(xù)發(fā)展他的想法，制造更小的機(jī)器，并增加了來(lái)自腳踏板的動(dòng)力源，這意味著紡織業(yè)發(fā)展了一圈，人們?cè)僖淮斡袡C(jī)會(huì)在自己家里生產(chǎn)衣服和其他紡織品。

影響：勒德分子

Machines meant textile products were cheaper to buy for everyone, and supply industries like the cotton plantations and coal mines boomed. The increase in the number of factories meant many new jobs were created, albeit largely unskilled work. The populations of cities and towns like Manchester, Liverpool, Sheffield, and Halifax increased ten times over in the 19th century as people in the countryside flocked to cramped and unsanitary urban centres to find work.

? ? ? ? ? 多虧了機(jī)器，紡織品對(duì)每個(gè)人來(lái)說(shuō)都更便宜了，棉花種植園和煤礦開(kāi)采等供應(yīng)行業(yè)也蓬勃發(fā)展。工廠數(shù)量的增加意味著創(chuàng)造了許多新的就業(yè)機(jī)會(huì)，盡管大部分是非技術(shù)性工作。曼徹斯特、利物浦、謝菲爾德和哈利法克斯等城鎮(zhèn)的人口在19世紀(jì)增加了10倍，因?yàn)檗r(nóng)村的人們紛紛涌向擁擠且不衛(wèi)生的城市尋找工作。

The arrival of machines put a lot of skilled textile workers out of a job, and many protested violently against the loss of their livelihood or the reduction in their wages. In the great manufacturing cities of Yorkshire, Lancashire, and Nottinghamshire between 1811 and 1816, a new protest group emerged, the Luddites, named after their mythical leader Ned Ludd, aka King Ludd. The Luddites broke into factories and smashed the machines that had taken away their jobs. The Establishment fought back. Handsome cash rewards were offered for information on or for the capture of Luddites, and the army was called in to protect factories and their owners. Those protestors who were caught faced harsh penalties that included hanging or deportation to Australia.

? ? ? ? ? 機(jī)器的到來(lái)使許多熟練的紡織工人失去了工作，許多人對(duì)失去生計(jì)或工資的減少進(jìn)行了激烈抗議。1811年至1816年間，在約克郡、蘭開(kāi)夏郡和諾丁漢郡的大型制造業(yè)城市，出現(xiàn)了一個(gè)新的抗議團(tuán)體——勒德派，以其神話中的領(lǐng)袖內(nèi)德·路德（又名路德國(guó)王）命名。勒德分子闖入工廠，砸毀了搶走他們飯碗的機(jī)器。當(dāng)權(quán)者進(jìn)行了反擊。他們提供了豐厚的現(xiàn)金獎(jiǎng)勵(lì)，以獲取有關(guān)勒德分子的情報(bào)或?qū)⑵渥カ@，并召集軍隊(duì)保護(hù)工廠及其業(yè)主。那些被抓住的抗議者面臨著嚴(yán)厲的懲罰，包括絞刑或被驅(qū)逐到澳大利亞。

工作條件和工會(huì)

Workers in textile mills had to put up with difficult conditions. Not only were the machines noisy and sometimes dangerous when they failed (falling heavy parts and shuttles flying out like missiles with alarming regularity), but in order to keep the cotton thread supple and strong, the atmosphere in a factory was deliberately kept warm and damp. Such conditions meant that many workers suffered health problems, particularly with their lungs.

? ? ? ? ? 紡織廠的工人不得不忍受艱苦的條件。不僅機(jī)器噪音大，有時(shí)故障時(shí)還很危險(xiǎn)（沉重的零件和梭子像子彈一樣經(jīng)常掉下來(lái)，令人震驚），而且為了保持棉線的柔韌性和強(qiáng)度，工廠環(huán)境有意保持溫暖和潮濕。在這種情況下，許多工人出現(xiàn)了健康問(wèn)題，尤其是肺部問(wèn)題。

A working day in a factory was long, typically 12 hours and included night work as factories and their machines worked around the clock. Many employers preferred women and children to men as they were cheaper. Children were employed, too, because they could crawl under the machines to clear up cotton waste and prevent hanging threads clogging the machinery, all too often a lethal task. As money and efficiency became the obsession of many mill owners, workers were increasingly pressured to work faster and not cause delays in production. There were fines for workers with dirty hands or those who took too long on a toilet break.

? ? ? ? ?工廠的工作日很長(zhǎng)，通常為12小時(shí)，包括夜間工作，因?yàn)楣S及其機(jī)器晝夜不停地工作。許多雇主喜歡婦女和兒童而不是男人，因?yàn)槌杀靖?。兒童也被雇用，因?yàn)樗麄兛梢耘赖綑C(jī)器下面，清理棉花廢料，防止掛線堵塞機(jī)器，這往往是一項(xiàng)致命的任務(wù)。隨著金錢和效率成為許多工廠主的執(zhí)念，工人們?cè)絹?lái)越多地受到壓力，要求他們加快工作速度，不要造成生產(chǎn)延誤。手臟的工人或上廁所時(shí)間過(guò)長(zhǎng)的工人會(huì)被罰款。

All of these negatives meant that workers eventually grouped together to protect their interests. Trade unions were formed to try and curb the greater abuses from unscrupulous employers. Unions collected funds to help those who were ill or injured and so unable to work or be paid. Owners did not like these limits on their profits, and the government banned trade unions between 1799 and 1824, but the movement to protect workers could not be stopped indefinitely.

? ? ? ? ? 所有這些消極方面使工人們最終為了維護(hù)自己的利益而結(jié)成聯(lián)盟。工會(huì)的成立是為了阻止不道德的雇主進(jìn)一步濫用職權(quán)。工會(huì)籌集資金幫助無(wú)法工作或無(wú)法獲得報(bào)酬的病人或受傷者。業(yè)主們不喜歡這些對(duì)其利潤(rùn)的限制，政府在1799年至1824年間取締了工會(huì)，但保護(hù)工人的運(yùn)動(dòng)不會(huì)無(wú)限期地停止。

Several acts of Parliament were passed from 1833 to try, not always successfully, to limit employers' exploitation of their workforce and lay down minimum standards. New regulations included the minimum age children could work, the length of shifts, the prohibition of night work for women and children, the obligation for owners to build protective screens for the more dangerous machines, and the appointment of government inspectors. Textile factories offered valuable employment, but they remained noisy, dangerous, and unhealthy places to spend most of one's waking hours in. The poet William Blake's 1808 description of factories as "dark satanic mills" (Horn, 52), sadly, remained apt long after the Industrial Revolution had passed.

? ? ? ? ? 從1833年起，議會(huì)通過(guò)了幾項(xiàng)法案，試圖限制雇主對(duì)其勞動(dòng)力的剝削，并制定最低標(biāo)準(zhǔn)，但并不總是成功。新的規(guī)定包括兒童可以工作的最低年齡、輪班時(shí)長(zhǎng)、禁止婦女和兒童上夜班、業(yè)主有義務(wù)為更危險(xiǎn)的機(jī)器建造保護(hù)屏，以及任命政府檢查員。紡織廠提供了寶貴的就業(yè)機(jī)會(huì)，但它們?nèi)匀皇青须s、危險(xiǎn)和不健康的地方，一個(gè)人醒著的大部分時(shí)間都在那里度過(guò)。詩(shī)人威廉·布萊克?在1808年將工廠描述為“黑暗的撒旦工廠”（Horn，52），可悲的是，在工業(yè)革命結(jié)束后的很長(zhǎng)一段時(shí)間里，這句話依然適用。

參考書(shū)目：

Allen, Robert C. The British Industrial Revolution in Global Perspective. Cambridge University Press, 2009.

Armstrong, Benjamin. Britain 1783-1885. Hodder Education, 2020.

Dugan, Sally & Dugan, David. The Day the World Took Off. Channel 4 Book, 2023.

Forty, Simon. 100 Innovations of the Industrial Revolution. Haynes Publishing UK, 2019.

Hepplewhite, Peter. All About. Wayland, 2016.

Horn, Jeff. The Industrial Revolution. ABC-CLIO, 2016.

Shelley et al. Industrialisation and Social Change in Britain. PEARSON SCHOOLS, 1970.

Yorke, Stan. The Industrial Revolution Explained& Massive Wheels. Countryside Books, 2005.

原文作者：Mark Cartwright

????????? 駐意大利的歷史作家。他的主要興趣包括陶瓷、建筑、世界神話和發(fā)現(xiàn)所有文明的共同思想。他擁有政治哲學(xué)碩士學(xué)位，是《世界歷史百科全書(shū)》的出版總監(jiān)。