散文網(wǎng) » 科技 »人文歷史 » 【簡(jiǎn)譯】腓尼基世界的貿(mào)易

【簡(jiǎn)譯】腓尼基世界的貿(mào)易

2023-03-24 11:40 作者:神尾智代 0人讀過(guò) | 我要投稿

The Phoenicians, based on a narrow coastal strip of the Levant, put their excellent seafaring skills to good use and created a network of colonies and trade centres across the ancient Mediterranean. Their major trade routes were by sea to the Greek islands, across southern Europe, down the Atlantic coast of Africa, and up to ancient Britain. In addition, Arabia and India were reached via the Red Sea, and vast areas of Western Asia were connected to the homeland via land routes where goods were transported by caravan. By the 9th century BCE, the Phoenicians had established themselves as one of the greatest trading powers in the ancient world.

? ? ? ? ? 腓尼基人以黎凡特狹窄的沿海地帶為基礎(chǔ)，運(yùn)用他們出色的航海技術(shù)，在整個(gè)古代地中海建立了一個(gè)殖民地和貿(mào)易中心網(wǎng)絡(luò)。他們的主要貿(mào)易路線是通過(guò)海路到達(dá)希臘群島、南歐、非洲大西洋沿岸和古代英國(guó)。此外，他們通過(guò)紅海到達(dá)阿拉伯和印度，西亞的廣大地區(qū)通過(guò)商隊(duì)運(yùn)輸貨物的陸路與其相連。到公元前9世紀(jì)，腓尼基已經(jīng)成為古代世界最大的貿(mào)易國(guó)之一。

地域范圍

Trade and the search for valuable commodities necessitated the establishment of permanent trading posts and, as the Phoenician ships generally sailed close to the coast and only in daytime, regular way-stations too. These outposts became more firmly established in order to control the trade in specific commodities available at that specific site. In time, these developed further to become full colonies so that a permanent Phoenician influence eventually extended around the whole coastline of the ancient Mediterranean and the Red Sea. Their broad-bottomed single-sail cargo ships transported goods from Lebanon to the Atlantic coast of Africa, Britain, and even the Canary Islands, and brought goods back in the opposite direction, stopping at trade centres anywhere else between. Nor was trade restricted to sea routes as Phoenician caravans also operated throughout Western Asia tapping into well-established trading zones such as Mesopotamia and India.

? ? ? ? ? 貿(mào)易和尋找有價(jià)值的產(chǎn)品需要建立永久性的貿(mào)易站，且腓尼基人的船只通?？拷０逗叫?，并且只在白天航行，因此也需要定期?？?。這些前哨站變得更加牢固，以控制特定地點(diǎn)的特定商品貿(mào)易。隨著時(shí)間的推移，這些前哨站進(jìn)一步發(fā)展成為完整的殖民地，從而使腓尼基人的影響力最終擴(kuò)展到古地中海和紅海的整個(gè)海岸。他們的寬底單帆貨船將貨物從黎巴嫩運(yùn)到非洲的大西洋沿岸、古代英國(guó)，甚至加那利群島，并將貨物從相反方向運(yùn)回，?？吭谄渌胤降馁Q(mào)易中心。貿(mào)易也不限于海上航線，因?yàn)殡枘峄剃?duì)也在整個(gè)西亞開(kāi)展業(yè)務(wù)，他們會(huì)利用美索不達(dá)米亞和印度等地完善的貿(mào)易設(shè)施。

Phoenician sea trade can, therefore, be divided into that for its colonies and that with fellow trading civilizations. Consequently, the Phoenicians not only imported what they needed and exported what they themselves cultivated and manufactured but they could also act as middlemen traders transporting goods such as papyrus, textiles, metals, and spices between the many civilizations with whom they had contact. They could thus make enormous gains by selling a commodity with a low value such as oil or pottery for another such as tin or silver which was not itself valued by its producers but could fetch enormous prices elsewhere. Trading Phoenicians appear in all manner of ancient sources, from Mesopotamian reliefs to the works of Homer and Herodotus, from Egyptian tomb art to the Book of Ezekiel in the Bible. The Phoenicians were the equivalent of the international haulage trucks of today, and just as ubiquitous.

? ? ? ? ? 腓尼基人的海上貿(mào)易可以分為為其殖民地貿(mào)易和與其他貿(mào)易文明的貿(mào)易。因此，腓尼基人不僅進(jìn)口他們需要的東西，出口他們自己種植和制造的東西，而且還可以充當(dāng)中間商，在與他們有聯(lián)系的許多文明之間運(yùn)輸莎草紙、紡織品、金屬和香料等貨物。他們還通過(guò)出售一種低價(jià)值的商品（例如石油或陶器）來(lái)?yè)Q取另一種商品（例如錫或銀），從而賺取巨額利潤(rùn)，而這些商品的生產(chǎn)者并不重視這些商品，但在其他地方可以賣到高價(jià)。腓尼基人的交易出現(xiàn)在各種古代資料中，從美索不達(dá)米亞的浮雕到荷馬和希羅多德的作品，從埃及的墓葬藝術(shù)到《圣經(jīng)》中的以西結(jié)書。腓尼基人相當(dāng)于今天的國(guó)際運(yùn)輸卡車，而且無(wú)處不在。

貿(mào)易交流方式

As with many other ancient civilizations the Phoenicians traded goods using a variety of methods. Prestige goods could be exchanged as reciprocal gifts but these could be more than mutual tokens of goodwill as, by bestowing on the receiver an obligation, they were a method to initiate trade partnerships. Luxury goods given as gifts may also have been a deliberate attempt by the Phoenicians to create a demand for more such items and help the Phoenicians acquire the local resources they coveted.

? ? ? ? ? 與其他許多古代文明一樣，腓尼基人使用各種方法進(jìn)行貨物交易。有名望的商品可以作為互惠的禮物進(jìn)行交換，但這可能不僅僅是相互表示善意的象征，因?yàn)樗鼈儗?duì)接受者施加了義務(wù)，它們是發(fā)起貿(mào)易協(xié)會(huì)的一種方式。贈(zèng)送的奢侈品也可能是腓尼基人故意制造對(duì)更多此類物品的需求并幫助他們獲得令人垂涎的當(dāng)?shù)刭Y源的嘗試。

Goods could be collected as a form of tribute in return for military protection or under compulsion. These were then stored in large quantities and then redistributed either locally or traded elsewhere. Goods could be bartered for and exchanged in kind on the spot. Alternatively, and perhaps the most common method employed by the Phoenicians, goods could be bought or sold in a relatively controlled manner where quantities and prices were fixed beforehand through the drawing up of trade agreements and treaties controlled by the state. The exchange value of goods was, therefore, fixed and so coinage was unnecessary, which is not to say there was no system of written arbitrary values and credit arrangements. The Phoenicians may not have produced coinage precisely because their trade was truly international and they had no use for coins which could not be used far from the place of their mint.

? ? ? ? ? 腓尼基人收集貨物作為貢品以換取軍事保護(hù)或出于義務(wù)。這些貢品被大量?jī)?chǔ)存并在當(dāng)?shù)刂匦路峙浠蛟谄渌胤浇灰?。貨物可以?dāng)場(chǎng)進(jìn)行實(shí)物交換。另外，也許是腓尼基人最常用的方法，貨物可以在相對(duì)受控的情況下進(jìn)行買賣，通過(guò)起草貿(mào)易協(xié)議和國(guó)家控制的條約，事先確定數(shù)量和價(jià)格。因此，貨物的交換價(jià)值是固定的，所以沒(méi)有必要使用硬幣，這并不是說(shuō)沒(méi)有書面的任意價(jià)值和信貸安排系統(tǒng)。腓尼基人之所以沒(méi)有制造硬幣，可能正是因?yàn)樗麄兊馁Q(mào)易是真正的國(guó)際化，在那些遠(yuǎn)離鑄幣廠的地方使用硬幣毫無(wú)意義。

Completely free trade where prices fluctuate due to supply and demand is a mechanism thought by some historians not to have been in operation prior to the 4th century BCE but the view is much debated amongst scholars. Phoenician trade was likely, then, carried out by state officials working on commission but also by consortiums of traders closely associated with royal households. These latter would have been high-ranking nobles, as described in Isaiah 23:8, "Tyre, the crowning city, whose merchants are princes, whose traffickers are the honourable of the earth." Perhaps from around the 8th century BCE the quantity of trade carried out by private merchants increased and the direct intervention of the state was reduced, again, the point is still subject to academic debate. The trading of goods most often took place in state-sanctioned trade centres which were generally recognised as neutral by the different regional states. The Phoenician city of Tyre is a classic example.

? ? ? ? ? 一些歷史學(xué)家認(rèn)為，在公元前4世紀(jì)之前，完全自由的貿(mào)易，價(jià)格會(huì)因供求關(guān)系而波動(dòng)，但這種觀點(diǎn)在學(xué)者之間存在很大爭(zhēng)議。因此，腓尼基人的貿(mào)易很可能是由受委托的國(guó)家官員進(jìn)行的，但也是由與王室密切相關(guān)的商人組成的財(cái)團(tuán)進(jìn)行的。后者應(yīng)該是高級(jí)貴族，正如《以賽亞書》23:8所描述：“泰爾，是個(gè)冠冕堂皇的城市，它的商人是王子，它的商人是地上尊貴的人。”也許從公元前8世紀(jì)左右開(kāi)始，私人商人進(jìn)行的貿(mào)易數(shù)量增加，國(guó)家的直接干預(yù)減少，同樣，這一點(diǎn)仍有學(xué)術(shù)爭(zhēng)論。貨物貿(mào)易最常發(fā)生在國(guó)家認(rèn)可的貿(mào)易中心，這些貿(mào)易中心通常被不同的地區(qū)國(guó)家普遍承認(rèn)為中立的。腓尼基的泰爾城就是一個(gè)典型的例子。

出口商品 - 木材

Phoenicia was a mere coastal strip backed by mountains. Despite the paucity of land available they did manage to produce cereals through irrigation of the arable terrain and cultivate on a limited scale such foodstuffs as olives, figs, dates, walnuts, almonds, pomegranates, plums, apricots, melons, pumpkins, cucumbers, and wine. However, the Phoenicians were most noted as exporters of wood. This commodity came from their abundant cedar and fir forests and had been traded since the beginning of recorded history. The cedar is a tall tree with a thick girth, making it ideal for timber. It also has the additional benefit of possessing an aromatic odour. Mesopotamia and Egypt were the most notable customers, the former receiving their trunks via caravan up to the Euphrates River while ships carried the wood to the African coast. The trade is recorded in reliefs of Sargon II and an inscription of Nebuchadnezzar. According to the historian George Rawlinson, Phoenician cedar wood was used by King Solomon for his celebrated temple, by Herod in Zerubbabel's Temple, and by the Ephesians for the roof of the Temple of Artemis at Ephesus, one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World.

? ? ? ? ? 腓尼基僅僅是一個(gè)背靠山脈的沿海地帶。盡管土地貧乏，他們還是設(shè)法通過(guò)灌溉耕地生產(chǎn)谷物，并在有限的土地上種植橄欖、無(wú)花果、棗、核桃、杏仁、石榴、李子、杏、甜瓜、南瓜、黃瓜和葡萄酒等糧食作物。然而，腓尼基人最出名的是木材出口，這些木材來(lái)自他們豐富的雪松和冷杉林，并且自有記載的歷史開(kāi)始以來(lái)就一直在交易。雪松是一種高大的樹(shù)木，腰身粗壯，是制作木材的理想材料。它還有一個(gè)好處，就是擁有芳香的氣味。美索不達(dá)米亞和埃及是最相關(guān)的客戶，前者通過(guò)商隊(duì)將樹(shù)干運(yùn)到幼發(fā)拉底河，而船只則將木材運(yùn)到非洲海岸。在薩爾貢二世的浮雕和尼布甲尼撒的銘文中都有關(guān)于這種貿(mào)易的記錄。根據(jù)歷史學(xué)家喬治-羅林森的說(shuō)法，腓尼基雪松被所羅門王用于他著名的圣殿，被希律王用于所羅巴伯的圣殿，被以弗所人用于以弗所的阿爾忒彌斯神廟的屋頂，這是古代世界的七大奇跡（公元前 225 年，拜占庭的費(fèi)隆 (Philo of Byzantium ) 在他的作品《七大奇跡》( The Seven ) 中首次將七大奇跡定義為希臘游客必看的景點(diǎn)）之一。

紡織品

The other famous Phoenician export was textiles which used wool, linen yarn, cotton, and later, silk. Wool (sheep and goat) probably dominated and came from Damascus and Arabia. Linen yarn was imported from Egypt while silk came from Persia. Taking these raw materials, the Phoenicians transformed them into uniquely colourful items, especially clothes and carpets. Fine multi-coloured clothing from Phoenicia is referenced both in Homer - where Paris gives Helen a gift of the cloth prior to whisking her off to Troy - and in Egyptian art when depicting Phoenicians from Sidon. The dyed fabrics were then exported back again, for example, to Memphis where the Phoenicians even had their own quarter in the city.

? ? ? ? ? 腓尼基人另一個(gè)著名的出口產(chǎn)品是紡織品：羊毛、亞麻線、棉花，以及后來(lái)的絲綢。羊毛（綿羊和山羊）可能占主導(dǎo)地位，來(lái)自大馬士革和阿拉伯。亞麻紗線從埃及進(jìn)口，而絲綢則來(lái)自波斯。從這些原材料中，腓尼基人生產(chǎn)出色彩獨(dú)特的物品，尤其是衣服和地毯。來(lái)自腓尼基的精美的多色服裝在荷馬史詩(shī)中都有提及（帕里斯在把海倫送到特洛伊之前送給了她一塊布），在埃及藝術(shù)中描繪西頓的腓尼基人時(shí)也有提及。染色后的織物會(huì)被再次出口，例如，出口到孟菲斯，腓尼基人甚至在那里有自己的街區(qū)。

Cloth dyed purple (actually shades ranging from pink to violet) using fluid from the Murex trunculus, Purpura lapillus, Helix ianthina, and especially the Murex brandaris shellfish brought the Phoenicians fame throughout the ancient world. Living in relatively deep water, these shell-fish were caught in baited traps suspended from floats. The dye was then extracted from thousands of putrefied shellfish left to bake in the sun. So popular were these textiles that vast deposits of the shells have been excavated on the outskirts of Sidon and Tyre and the species was all but driven to extinction along the coasts of Phoenicia. The highest quality cloth was known as Dibapha, meaning 'twice dipped' in the purple dye. The Phoenicians not only exported the dyed cloth but also the process of extracting the dye, as indicated by the shell deposits found at Phoenician colonies across the Mediterranean. Besides their vivid colours, Phoenician textiles were also famous for their fine embroidery. Popular designs included repeated motifs such as scarabs, rosettes, winged globes, lotus blossoms, and mythical monsters.

? ? ? ? ? 用Murex trunculus、Purpura lapillus、Helix ianthina，特別是Murex brandaris貝類的液體將布染成紫色（實(shí)際上是從粉色到紫色不等），使腓尼基人在整個(gè)古代世界享有盛名。這些生活在相對(duì)較深水中的軟體動(dòng)物被懸掛在漂浮物上的誘捕器捕獲。這種染料是從數(shù)千只在陽(yáng)光下烘烤的腐爛貝類中提取的。這些紡織品如此受歡迎，以至于后來(lái)人們?cè)谖黝D和泰爾的郊區(qū)挖掘出大量的貝殼，該物種在腓尼基的沿海地區(qū)幾乎被趕盡殺絕。最高質(zhì)量的布被稱為Dibapha，意思是在紫色染料中“浸泡兩次”。腓尼基人不僅出口染色布，而且還出口提取染料的技術(shù)，這一點(diǎn)從地中海各地的腓尼基殖民地發(fā)現(xiàn)的貝殼礦床中可以看出。除了鮮艷的色彩，腓尼基人的紡織品還因其精美的刺繡而聞名。流行的設(shè)計(jì)包括重復(fù)的圖案，如疤痕、玫瑰花、帶翅膀的球體、蓮花和神話中的怪物。

玻璃制品

The Phoenicians also traded glassware. The Egyptians had already been long-time producers but from the 7th century BCE the Phoenicians began to produce transparent glass, as opposed to merely opaque glassware. Important centres of glass production were Sidon, Tyre, and Sarepta. Transparent glass was used to manufacture mirrors, plates, and drinking glasses but the Phoenicians seemed to have appreciated semi-transparent coloured glass (blue, yellow, green, and brown) for their more elaborate productions as well as for jewellery and small plaques which were sewn onto clothing. Phoenician glassware, especially in the form of small perfume bottles, has been found as far afield as Cyprus, Sardinia, and Rhodes.

? ? ? ? ? 腓尼基人也進(jìn)行玻璃器皿貿(mào)易。埃及人早已成為生產(chǎn)者，但從公元前 7 世紀(jì)開(kāi)始，腓尼基人開(kāi)始生產(chǎn)透明玻璃，而不僅僅是不透明的玻璃制品。重要的玻璃生產(chǎn)中心是西頓、泰爾和薩勒普塔。透明玻璃被用來(lái)制造鏡子、盤子和酒杯，但腓尼基人似乎很欣賞半透明的彩色玻璃（藍(lán)色、黃色、綠色和棕色），用于更精細(xì)的制作，以及用于珠寶和縫在衣服上的小牌子。腓尼基人的玻璃制品，特別是小型香水瓶，在塞浦路斯、撒丁島和羅德島等地都有發(fā)現(xiàn)。

進(jìn)口商品

The Phoenicians imported metals, especially copper from Cyprus, silver and iron from Spain, and gold from Ethiopia (and possibly Anatolia). This raw material was transformed into ornate vessels and art objects in Phoenician workshops and then exported. Tin (from Britain), lead (Scilly Isles and Spain), and brassware were also traded, the latter principally coming from Spain. Ivory was imported from either Punt or India, as was ebony, both coming to Phoenicia via Arabia. Amber came either from the Baltic or Adriatic coast and was used in Phoenician jewellery. Embroidered linen and grain were imported from Egypt and fine, worked cloth from Mesopotamia. Grain, barley, honey, and oak timber used for oars on Phoenician ships, came from Palestine.

? ? ? ? ? 腓尼基人進(jìn)口金屬，特別是來(lái)自塞浦路斯的銅，來(lái)自西班牙的銀和鐵，以及來(lái)自埃塞俄比亞（可能還有安納托利亞）的黃金。這些原材料在腓尼基人的工場(chǎng)被加工成華麗的器皿和藝術(shù)品，然后出口。錫（來(lái)自英國(guó)）、鉛（斯基利群島和西班牙）和黃銅制品也有貿(mào)易往來(lái)，后者主要來(lái)自西班牙。象牙是從蓬托或印度進(jìn)口的，烏木也是如此，后者經(jīng)由阿拉伯到達(dá)腓尼基。琥珀來(lái)自波羅的海或亞得里亞海沿岸，用于制作腓尼基珠寶。刺繡亞麻布和谷物是從埃及進(jìn)口的，精致的織物是從美索不達(dá)米亞進(jìn)口的。谷物、大麥、蜂蜜和用于腓尼基船只的船槳的橡木木材來(lái)自巴勒斯坦。

Phoenician markets also traded in slaves (from Cilicia and Phrygia but also captured by the Phoenicians themselves), sheep (Arabia), horses and mules (Armenia), goats, wool (Damascus and Arabia), coral, perfumes (Judah and Israel), agate, and precious stones such as emeralds (from Syria and Sheba). Spices came from the Arabian Peninsula (some coming from distant India) and included cinnamon, calamus, cassia, ladanum, frankincense, and myrrh.

? ? ? ? ? 腓尼基市場(chǎng)還交易奴隸（來(lái)自奇里乞亞和弗里吉亞，但也被腓尼基人自己俘獲）、綿羊（阿拉伯）、馬和騾子（亞美尼亞）、山羊、羊毛（大馬士革和阿拉伯）、珊瑚、香水（以色列的猶大王國(guó)）、瑪瑙和寶石，如祖母綠（來(lái)自敘利亞和薩巴）。香料來(lái)自阿拉伯半島（有些來(lái)自遙遠(yuǎn)的印度），包括肉桂、菖蒲、肉桂、薰衣草、乳香和沒(méi)藥。

人頭獅身人面像鏤空象牙鑲板，約公元前 900-700 年，發(fā)現(xiàn)于伊拉克北部的撒爾曼尼色堡。

后? ?? 續(xù)

From the 7th century BCE, the Phoenicians' trade network was eclipsed by the efforts of one of its most successful colonies - Carthage, by the Greeks, and then the Romans. But the Phoenicians had been the first Mediterranean trading superpower, and their early dominance led to those empires which followed adopting similar trading practices and even adopting Phoenician names for certain exotic goods from distant lands. The Phoenicians had dared to sail beyond the horizon and transport commodities to where they were most prized. As the prophet Isaiah (23:2) stated, "you merchants of Sidon, whose goods travelled over the sea, over wide oceans."

? ? ? ? ? 從公元前7世紀(jì)開(kāi)始，腓尼基人的貿(mào)易網(wǎng)絡(luò)在其最成功的殖民地之一迦太基的努力下黯然失色，希臘人、羅馬人相繼取代其地位。但腓尼基人是第一個(gè)地中海貿(mào)易超級(jí)大國(guó)，他們?cè)缙诘闹鲗?dǎo)地位導(dǎo)致后來(lái)的那些帝國(guó)采用類似的貿(mào)易慣例，甚至采用腓尼基人的名字來(lái)稱呼某些來(lái)自遠(yuǎn)方的異國(guó)貨物。腓尼基人敢于航行到地平線以外的地方，把商品運(yùn)到它們最珍貴的地方。正如先知以賽亞（23:2）所說(shuō)，“西頓的商人，他們的貨物越過(guò)大海，越過(guò)寬闊的海洋”。