【簡譯】霍京要塞（Khotyn Fortress）
Khotyn Fortress is a complex of fortifications situated on the hilly right bank of the Dniester in Khotyn, Ukraine. It consists of a 13th-century stronghold and an 18th-century bastion surrounding it. It is one of the oldest preserved fortifications of Eastern Europe.
? ? ? ? ? ?霍京（烏克蘭語：Хотин）要塞是位于烏克蘭霍廷市鎮(zhèn)的德涅斯特河右岸丘陵地帶的一個防御工事群。它由一座 13 世紀(jì)的要塞和圍繞要塞的 18 世紀(jì)堡壘組成，是東歐現(xiàn)存最古老的防御工事之一。
中世紀(jì)要塞
There is no information in written sources about the construction date of the first fortifications at this place, but archaeological excavations in the 1960s discovered the remains of an early fortified structure. The first castle had wooden walls and earth ramparts, and it was possibly constructed in the early 11th century by the Grand Prince of Kyiv Vladimir the Great (l. c. 958-1015), who conquered the area around that time and wanted to control the river crossing and gain access to a major trade route.
? ? ? ? ? 書面資料中沒有關(guān)于該地點(diǎn)第一座防御工事的建造日期的信息，但 20 世紀(jì) 60 年代進(jìn)行的考古發(fā)掘發(fā)現(xiàn)了早期防御工事結(jié)構(gòu)的遺跡。第一座城堡有木墻和土城墻，可能是基輔大公弗拉基米爾大帝（約 958-1015 年）于 11 世紀(jì)初建造的，他在當(dāng)時征服了這一地區(qū)，并希望控制渡河口岸，此地連接當(dāng)時重要的貿(mào)易路線。
In 1199, the city and the fortress became part of the Galicia-Volhynia Principality, which used the fortress on the banks of the Dniester, then the border of the principality, to defend the frontier. In the middle of the 13th century, Daniel I of Galicia (l. 1201-1264), King of Ruthenia (formerly Galicia-Volhynia), reinforced the stronghold by replacing the wooden fortifications with stone ones.
? ? ? ? 1199年，這座城市和要塞成為加利西亞-沃里尼亞公國的一部分，公國利用德涅斯特河岸（當(dāng)時是公國的邊界）上的要塞保衛(wèi)邊境。13世紀(jì)中葉，魯塞尼亞（前加利西亞-沃里尼亞）國王丹尼爾一世（Daniel I of Galicia，1201-1264年）用石制防御工事取代了木制防御工事，加固了要塞。
With the economic crisis of the 14th century in Europe, Genoa sought new income sources. Such an income stream was the Black Sea Basin, which includes the Dniester, as these lands were abundant in agricultural resources. Thus, by the first half of the 14th century, the Genoese created a trade network all across the Danube, the Dniester, the Sea of Azov, and Crimea. Considering the weakness of the Kingdom of Ruthenia in the early 14th century, the Genoese were able to take over the Dniester trade route, and the Khotyn stronghold became a remote outpost defending the trade network.
? ? ? ? ? 隨著14世紀(jì)歐洲經(jīng)濟(jì)危機(jī)的爆發(fā)，熱那亞開始尋求新的經(jīng)濟(jì)來源。這種經(jīng)濟(jì)來源包括德涅斯特河在內(nèi)的黑海盆地，因?yàn)檫@片土地上有豐富的農(nóng)業(yè)資源。因此，到14世紀(jì)上半葉，熱那亞人沿著多瑙河、德涅斯特河、亞速海和克里米亞建立了貿(mào)易網(wǎng)絡(luò)?？紤]到14世紀(jì)初魯塞尼亞王國的衰弱，熱那亞人得以接管德涅斯特河貿(mào)易路線，霍京要塞成為保衛(wèi)貿(mào)易網(wǎng)絡(luò)的偏遠(yuǎn)前哨。
With the foundation of the Principality of Moldavia in the mid-14th century, under the rule of Drago? the Founder (d. 1353), the vassal of the Kingdom of Hungary, all the fortifications and trade posts on the Dniester, including Khotyn, came under the rule of Moldavia. In the 15th century, the stronghold was significantly rebuilt and became the residence of the local governor.
? ? ? ? ?14世紀(jì)中葉，匈牙利王國的附庸德拉戈什（卒于1353年）建立了摩爾達(dá)維亞公國，德涅斯特河上的所有防御工事和貿(mào)易站（包括霍京要塞）都隸屬于其統(tǒng)治。15世紀(jì)，該要塞進(jìn)行了大規(guī)模重建，并成為當(dāng)?shù)乜偠降墓氽 ?/strong>
In the second half of the 15th century, the Ottoman Empire wanted to conquer Southern Bessarabia and was afraid of the strategic location of the Principality of Moldavia. In 1473, Moldavia refused to pay its annual tribute to the Ottoman Empire, and so Mehmed II the Conqueror (r. 1451-1481) invaded Moldavia in 1474. In 1476, his army reached Khotyn, but the fortress proved impregnable, and the siege was unsuccessful.
? ? ? ? ?15世紀(jì)下半葉，奧斯曼帝國想要征服南比薩拉比亞，又忌憚摩爾達(dá)維亞公國的戰(zhàn)略位置。1473年，摩爾達(dá)維亞拒絕向奧斯曼帝國繳納年貢，征服者穆罕默德二世（1451-1481年統(tǒng)治）遂于1474年入侵摩爾達(dá)維亞。1476年，他的軍隊(duì)抵達(dá)霍京，但要塞堅(jiān)不可摧，圍攻失敗。
奧斯曼帝國時期
At the beginning of the 16th century, the Principality of Moldavia became a vassal of the Ottoman Empire, and the janissary garrison of the region took over the fortress. In the 1530s, Petru Rare? (l. c. 1483-1546), the Prince of Moldavia, attempted to conquer the Pokuttya, a region northwest of Khotyn, starting a war with the Kingdom of Poland. However, the Polish army was much stronger, and in 1538, it laid siege to Khotyn and captured the stronghold. During the siege a large section of the wall between the north and east towers was blown up, part of the palace near the east wall, the gate, and the blacksmith's tower were destroyed. The castle was rebuilt and expanded from 1540 to 1544: the walls and the blacksmith's tower were restored, and the new gate was built. The Poles controlled the fortress until 1617 when the Peace of Busza was signed and the fortress came under the rule of Ottoman Moldavia.
? ? ? ? ? 16世紀(jì)初，摩爾達(dá)維亞公國成為奧斯曼帝國的附庸，該地區(qū)的衛(wèi)戍部隊(duì)接管了要塞。16世紀(jì)30年代，摩爾達(dá)維亞王子佩特魯·拉雷斯（Petru Rare?，約 1483-1546 年）試圖征服霍京西北部的波庫蒂亞（Pokuttia）地區(qū)，挑起與波蘭王國的戰(zhàn)爭。然而，波蘭軍隊(duì)要強(qiáng)大得多，1538年，波蘭軍隊(duì)圍攻了霍京并占領(lǐng)該據(jù)點(diǎn)。圍攻期間，北塔和東塔之間的一大段城墻被炸毀，東墻附近的部分宮殿、城門和鐵匠塔（堡壘墻上的側(cè)塔）也被摧毀。1540 年至1544年，城堡進(jìn)行了重建和擴(kuò)建：修復(fù)了城墻和鐵匠塔，并修建了新的城門。波蘭人一直控制著這座要塞，直到1617年《雅魯加條約》 (Peace of Busza)簽署，要塞重回奧斯曼-摩爾達(dá)維亞統(tǒng)治。
In 1620, the tension between the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and the Ottoman Empire reached its peak. The Tatars and the Cossacks, subjects of the Turkish Sultan and the Polish King, respectively, had been in constant conflict, with the Tatars raiding southern lands of the Commonwealth to capture slaves and the Cossacks plundering Ottoman towns and trade points, even threatening Istanbul. Poland had also interfered in the internal affairs of Moldavia, and so, in 1621, Sultan Osman II (r. 1618-1622) gathered an army of almost 160,000 soldiers and launched an invasion. The army of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and their Cossack allies numbered around 50,000 to 60,000 troops. The armies met under the walls of Khotyn, and the battle ended with a Polish-Lithuanian victory. The Peace Treaty of Khotyn recognized the Commonwealth-Ottoman border on the Dniester, but the fortress remained under Ottoman rule.
? ? ? ? ? 1620 年，波蘭-立陶宛聯(lián)邦與奧斯曼帝國之間的緊張關(guān)系達(dá)到頂峰。韃靼人和哥薩克人分別是奧斯曼蘇丹和波蘭國王的臣民，他們之間沖突不斷，韃靼人襲擊聯(lián)邦南部的土地以俘獲奴隸，哥薩克人則掠奪奧斯曼帝國的城鎮(zhèn)和貿(mào)易站，甚至威脅到伊斯坦布爾。1621 年，蘇丹奧斯曼二世（1618-1622 年在位）集結(jié)了一支近 16 萬士兵的軍隊(duì)，發(fā)動了入侵。波蘭-立陶宛聯(lián)邦及其哥薩克盟軍約有五六萬人。雙方軍隊(duì)在霍京城墻下會師，戰(zhàn)斗以波蘭-立陶宛的勝利告終。《霍京和約》承認(rèn)波蘭-立陶宛聯(lián)邦與奧斯曼帝國在德涅斯特河上的邊界，但要塞仍在奧斯曼帝國的統(tǒng)治之下。
In 1673, the army of Poland-Lithuania, under John III Sobieski (l. 1629-1696), faced the Ottoman military again. The Commonwealth was victorious; they even managed to capture the fortress, albeit briefly. Afterwards, the Ottomans decided to demolish the castle, but the local governor did not complete the task, and so the castle survived.
? ? ? ? ? 1673 年，約翰三世·索別斯基（John III Sobieski，1629-1696）率領(lǐng)的波蘭-立陶宛軍隊(duì)再次迎戰(zhàn)奧斯曼帝國軍隊(duì)。聯(lián)邦軍隊(duì)取得了勝利；他們甚至成功占領(lǐng)了要塞，盡管時間很短。隨后，奧斯曼人決定拆除要塞，但當(dāng)?shù)乜偠經(jīng)]有完成這項(xiàng)任務(wù)，因此要塞得以幸存。
At the beginning of the 18th century, the Ottoman Empire was seriously concerned about the growing power of the Tsardom of Russia. They were afraid that the Russians would attack the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and then Ottoman Moldavia, where a large part of the population was Orthodox Christian. Moreover, the Turks wanted to reconquer the lands that were lost to Russia after the Treaty of Constantinople in 1700. In 1710, the Ottoman Empire declared war on the Tsardom of Russia, and a year later, Peter the Great (l. 1672-1725) started the Pruth River Campaign, invading Moldavia. The campaign was unsuccessful for Russians, and they had to sign a new peace treaty with the Ottoman Empire.
? ? ? ? ? 18 世紀(jì)初，奧斯曼帝國對沙皇俄國日益強(qiáng)大的實(shí)力深感憂慮。他們擔(dān)心俄國人會進(jìn)攻波蘭-立陶宛聯(lián)邦，然后是奧斯曼帝國的摩爾達(dá)維亞，因?yàn)槟抢锏拇蟛糠秩丝诙夹欧顤|正教。此外，奧斯曼人還想重新奪回 1700 年與沙皇俄國簽訂《君士坦丁堡條約》后失去的土地。1710 年，奧斯曼帝國向沙皇俄國宣戰(zhàn)，一年后，彼得大帝（1672-1725 年）發(fā)動普魯特河戰(zhàn)役（俄土戰(zhàn)爭 (1710年—1711年)），入侵摩爾達(dá)維亞。這場戰(zhàn)役對俄羅斯人來說并不成功，他們不得不與奧斯曼帝國簽訂新的和約。
The Ottomans reinforced all the fortifications on the Dniester, which performed a role of the northern border. The Khotyn stronghold was significantly rebuilt, and a new bastion fortress was constructed around it. The newly built fortification had seven bastions and five fortified gates. The outer side of the shaft was fortified with a stone wall, in front of which was a moat. The old stronghold was connected to the whole fortification system by a wall. The new 30-hectare (74-acre) complex could house a garrison of 20,000 with provisions and ammunition in peacetime and up to 60,000 troops during hostilities. The stronghold performed the function of an arsenal.
? ? ? ? ? 奧斯曼人加固了德涅斯特河上的所有防御工事，使其發(fā)揮了北部邊界的作用。霍京要塞進(jìn)行了大規(guī)模重建，并在其周圍修建了新的堡壘。新建的要塞有七個堡壘和五個堅(jiān)固的大門。豎井外側(cè)筑有石墻，墻前有護(hù)城河。舊要塞與整個防御工事系統(tǒng)之間有一道墻相連。這座占地 30 公頃（74 英畝）的新建筑群在和平時期可容納 20,000 人的駐軍，并提供補(bǔ)給和彈藥，在戰(zhàn)爭時期可容納多達(dá) 60,000 人的部隊(duì)?；艟┮簿哂熊娀饚斓墓δ?。
后來的發(fā)展
In the 18th century, the fortress frequently changed hands. During the Russo-Turkish War of 1735-1739, the Russian troops defeated the Ottoman army at Stavuchany (1739), near Khotyn, after which the Ottoman garrison of the fortress surrendered without a fight. With the Peace Treaty of Belgrade later that same year, the Ottoman garrison returned. In 1769, during the Russo-Turkish War of 1768-1774, the Russian army faced the Ottomans on the Dniester. The battle ended with the defeat of the Ottomans and the withdrawal of the Khotyn garrison. However, the Treaty of Kü?ük Kaynarca (1774) did not change the Dniester border, and so the fortress came under Ottoman rule again.
? ? ? ? ? 18世紀(jì)，要塞頻繁易手。1735-1739 年俄土戰(zhàn)爭期間，俄軍在霍京附近的斯塔武恰尼 (Stavuchany)（1739 年）擊敗了奧斯曼軍隊(duì)，要塞的奧斯曼守軍不戰(zhàn)而降。同年晚些時候，隨著《貝爾格萊德和約》的簽訂，奧斯曼帝國駐軍返回要塞。1769 年，在 1768-1774 年俄土戰(zhàn)爭期間，沙俄軍隊(duì)在德涅斯特河上與奧斯曼軍隊(duì)對峙，戰(zhàn)斗以奧斯曼人的失敗和霍京駐軍的撤離而告終。然而，《庫楚克-凱納爾吉和約》（Treaty of Kü?ük Kaynarca）（1774 年）并沒有改變德涅斯特河的邊界，因此要塞再次落入奧斯曼帝國手中。
In 1787, the Ottoman Empire made an attempt to reconquest the lands lost to Russia in the previous wars. The Austrian Empire joined the war on the Russian side, and the Russian-Austrian army surrounded and besieged the fortress of Khotyn. The fortress surrendered, but, again, the Treaty of Jassy did not change the Dniester border, and the Ottoman garrison regained control of the fortress.
? ? ? ? ? 1787 年，奧斯曼帝國試圖重新征服沙俄在之前戰(zhàn)爭中失去的土地。奧地利帝國加入了沙俄一方參戰(zhàn)，俄奧軍隊(duì)包圍了霍京要塞。要塞投降，但《雅西和約》（1792年）同樣沒有改變德涅斯特河的邊界，奧斯曼守軍又重新控制了要塞。
In 1806, Russian troops crossed the Dniester into Moldavia, starting the Russo-Turkish War of 1806-1812. Without resistance, the Khotyn commander handed over the fortress to the Russians. Finally, in 1812, under the Bucharest Peace Treaty, Khotyn officially became part of the Russian Empire. Thereafter, the fortress lost its strategic importance; it became the headquarters and infirmary of the Modlin Infantry Regiment, stationed in Khotyn. Nowadays, the complex is a historical reserve; the fortress was restored to its 18-century state, and it is a popular tourist destination.
? ? ? ? ? 1806年，俄軍越過德涅斯特河進(jìn)入摩爾達(dá)維亞，發(fā)動了 1806-1812 年的俄土戰(zhàn)爭?；艟┲笓]官在沒有抵抗的情況下將要塞交給了俄國人。最后，1812 年，根據(jù)《布加勒斯特和約》（1812年），霍京正式成為俄羅斯帝國的一部分。此后，要塞失去了戰(zhàn)略意義，成為駐扎在霍京的莫德林步兵團(tuán)的總部和醫(yī)院。如今，該建筑群已成為歷史保護(hù)區(qū)；要塞已恢復(fù)到 18 世紀(jì)的狀態(tài)，成為著名的旅游景點(diǎn)。
城堡防御結(jié)構(gòu)
The castle, after dozens of reconstructions and refinements, has formed a fairly powerful defence system. In order to protect the castle from the artillery fire, as it is situated in the centre of a basin, the walls rise almost 40 metres (130 ft) above the ground. The north and west walls are surrounded by a small stream, and along the south wall is a moat.
? ? ? ? ? ?城堡經(jīng)過數(shù)十次重建和完善，已經(jīng)形成了一個相當(dāng)強(qiáng)大的防御系統(tǒng)。由于城堡位于盆地中心，為了防止炮火轟擊，城墻高出地面近 40 米（130 英尺）。北墻和西墻被一條小溪環(huán)繞，南墻有一條護(hù)城河。
The walls are fortified with five towers, which allowed the castle to cover the surrounding hills with artillery fire:
South Entrance Tower – Built in the early 18th century, the height of the tower is 20 meters, and the walls are 3-4 metres (10-13 ft) thick. Initially, the entrance to the stronghold was situated at the bottom of the tower, but in the 19th century, it was rebuilt, wooden bridges were added, and the entrance was moved up to the current level.
Blacksmith's (South-west) Tower – The current tower, which was built in the 18th century, is a rebuild of a 15th-century one. Almost 29 metres (95 ft) high, with walls 2 metres (6.5 ft) thick, it housed the castle's forge.
Commandant's (West) Tower – Constructed in the 15th century, the tower was directly connected to the commandant's palace. The height of the tower is 62.5 metres (205 ft), and the walls are 2 metres (6.5 ft) thick. On the upper story of the tower, there were loopholes for artillery fire.
East Tower – The tower was built in mid-15th century. The height of the tower is 55 metres (180 ft). Inside, the tower is a 6-metre-thick (20 ft) solid part of the wall, therefore the only way to get to the loophole level is through the castle walls.
North Tower – Constructed in the mid-15th century, the tower was the keep of the castle. It has four tiers with loopholes that were used for artillery and musket fire. The walls of the tower are 68 metres (223 ft) high and 2 metres (6.5 ft) thick.
城墻上建有五座塔樓，使城堡能夠用炮火覆蓋周圍的山丘：
? ? ? ? ? 南入口塔：建于 18 世紀(jì)初，塔高 20 米，墻厚 3-4 米（10-13 英尺）。最初，要塞的入口位于塔的底部，但在 19 世紀(jì)進(jìn)行了重建，增加了木橋，入口也被移到了現(xiàn)在的位置。
? ? ? ? ? 鐵匠塔（西南）：現(xiàn)在的鐵匠塔建于 18 世紀(jì)，是在 15 世紀(jì)的鐵匠塔基礎(chǔ)上重建的。塔高近 29 米（95 英尺），墻厚 2 米（6.5 英尺），是城堡的鍛造室。
? ? ? ? ? 司令塔（西）：建于 15 世紀(jì)，與司令官邸直接相連。塔高 62.5 米（205 英尺），墻厚 2 米（6.5 英尺）。塔的上層有供火炮射擊的射孔。
? ? ? ? ? 東塔：該塔建于 15 世紀(jì)中葉。塔高 55 米（180 英尺）。塔內(nèi)是 6 米厚（20 英尺）的堅(jiān)固城墻，因此只有穿過城堡城墻才能到射孔層。
? ? ? ? ? 北塔：建于 15 世紀(jì)中葉，是要塞的主樓。塔樓共有四層，設(shè)有用于火炮和火槍射擊的射孔。塔墻高 68 米（223 英尺），厚 2 米（6.5 英尺）。
城堡庭院
The courtyard is divided into two halves by the house of the commandant. The northern part, which is the oldest part of the castle, is referred to as Duke's Yard or Commandant's Yard, while the southern part of the stronghold is called the Yard of Warriors.
? ? ? ? ? 庭院被司令官邸分為兩半。北部是城堡最古老的部分，被稱為公爵院或指揮官院，而要塞的南部則被稱為勇士院。
The majority of the buildings are located in the southern part:
The house of the commandant – The 15th-century two-story palace was built of white stone blocks and red bricks. Inside, the palace is divided into residential and keeping parts. The palace also had portals and white stone frames, but the majority of these elements were lost in the 19th and 20th centuries.
Barracks – The two-story living quarters of the stronghold garrison were constructed in the 15th-century along the eastern wall. Rebuilt many times throughout history, they currently house a museum of the fortress.
Castle well – Located in the middle of the courtyard, it is 50 metres (164 ft) deep and dates back to the 15th century.
Castle chapel – The date of the construction is unknown, but it was probably built between the 13th and 15th centuries in the Romanesque and Gothic architectural styles. It was rebuilt many times, converted into a mosque in the Ottoman period and reconstructed into an Orthodox church in the early 19th century.
大部分建筑位于南部：
? ? ? ? ? 司令官?。哼@座 15 世紀(jì)的兩層宮殿由白色石塊和紅磚建成。官邸內(nèi)部分為居住區(qū)和警衛(wèi)區(qū)，官邸還有門戶和白石框架，但這些結(jié)構(gòu)大多在 19 世紀(jì)和 20 世紀(jì)消失了。
? ? ? ? ? 兵營：要塞守軍的兩層生活區(qū)建于 15 世紀(jì)，沿東墻而建。歷史上曾多次重建，目前是要塞博物館所在地。
? ? ? ? ? 要塞水井：位于庭院中央，深 50 米（164 英尺），其歷史可追溯到 15 世紀(jì)。
? ? ? ? ? 要塞小教堂：建造年代不詳，但可能建于 13-15 世紀(jì)之間，具有羅馬式和哥特式建筑風(fēng)格。它曾多次重建，奧斯曼時期被改建為清真寺，19 世紀(jì)初又重建為東正教教堂。
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原文作者：Artem Vynohradov
原文網(wǎng)址: https://www.worldhistory.org/Khotyn_Fortress/
