In antiquity, aqueducts transported water from one place to another, achieving a regular and controlled supply to a place that would not otherwise have received sufficient quantities. Consequently, aqueducts met basic needs such as the irrigation of food crops and drinking fountains. Ancient aqueducts took the form of tunnels, surface channels and canals, covered clay pipes and monumental bridges.

? ? ? ? ? 在古代，人們修建引水渠將水從一個(gè)地方輸送到另一個(gè)地方，實(shí)現(xiàn)了定期和可控的供水，緩解了部分地區(qū)水源不足的情況。因此，引水渠滿足了當(dāng)時(shí)人們的日常需求，如灌溉作物和飲水噴泉。古代引水渠的種類包括隧道、地表渠道和運(yùn)河、有蓋的粘土管和極為龐大的橋梁。

Ever since the human race has lived in communities and farmed the land, water management has been a key factor in the well-being and prosperity of a community. Settlements not immediately near a freshwater source dug shafts into underground water tables to create wells and cisterns were also created to collect rainwater so that it could be used at a later date. Underground aqueducts and those built as bridges on the surface, however, allowed communities not only to access clean and fresh water but to live further from a water source and to utilise land which would otherwise have been unusable for agriculture.

? ? ? ? ? 自從人類定居并耕種土地以來(lái)，水源一直是社區(qū)福祉和繁榮的一個(gè)關(guān)鍵因素。在沒(méi)有緊鄰淡水源的定居點(diǎn)，人們會(huì)在地下水位挖井，還修建了蓄水池來(lái)收集雨水，以便日后使用。然而，地下水道和那些在地表建造的橋梁，不僅使居住地能夠獲得清潔的淡水，而且人們還可以住在離水源更遠(yuǎn)的地方，并開發(fā)新的耕作土地。

最早的引水渠

The earliest and simplest aqueducts were constructed of lengths of inverted clay tiles and sometimes pipes which channelled water over a short distance and followed the contours of the land. The earliest examples of these date from the Minoan civilization on Crete in the early 2nd millennium BCE and from contemporary Mesopotamia. Aqueducts were also an important feature of Mycenaean settlements in the 14th century BCE, ensuring autonomy against siege for the acropolis of Mycenae and the fortifications at Tiryns.

? ? ? ? ? 最早和最簡(jiǎn)單的引水渠是由長(zhǎng)長(zhǎng)的、倒置的粘土瓦片（有時(shí)是管道）鑲嵌建造的，它們將水引到短槽里，并沿著地上的溝渠流向遠(yuǎn)方。最早修建的引水渠可以追溯到公元前二千年早期克里特島的米諾斯文明和美索不達(dá)米亞地區(qū)。引水渠也是公元前14世紀(jì)邁錫尼定居點(diǎn)的一個(gè)重要特征，它確保了邁錫尼衛(wèi)城和蒂林斯防御工事的獨(dú)立性。

美索不達(dá)米亞的引水渠

The first sophisticated long-distance canal systems for water supply were constructed in the Assyrian Empire in the 9th century BCE and incorporated tunnels several kilometres in length. These engineering feats permitted the aqueducts?to be constructed in a more direct line between source and outlet. The Babylonians in the 8th century BCE also built extensive and sophisticated canal systems. In the 7th century BCE, a wide canal crossed a 280 m long bridge to bring water to Nineveh, and water was brought through a 537-metre tunnel to supply Jerusalem.

? ? ? ? ? 公元前9世紀(jì)，亞述帝國(guó)建造了第一個(gè)復(fù)雜的長(zhǎng)距離供水運(yùn)河系統(tǒng)，其中包括數(shù)公里長(zhǎng)的隧道。這些工程系統(tǒng)使得水渠可以更直接地建造在源頭與出口之間。公元前8世紀(jì)的巴比倫人也建造了龐大而復(fù)雜的運(yùn)河系統(tǒng)。在公元前7世紀(jì)，一條寬闊的運(yùn)河穿過(guò)280米長(zhǎng)的橋，將水引入尼尼微，水通過(guò)537米長(zhǎng)的隧道，供給耶路撒冷。

Another important innovation in water management was qanats. These probably originated from Persia (or perhaps Arabia) and were large underground galleries which collected groundwater. Tunnels at a lower level than the reservoir and often several kilometres in length then channelled off the water via the force of gravity. Such underground aqueducts as the Qanats were present throughout the ancient world from Egypt to China.

? ? ? ? ? 水輸送方面的另一項(xiàng)重要?jiǎng)?chuàng)新是坎兒井?？矁壕赡芷鹪从诓ㄋ梗ㄒ部赡芷鹪从诎⒗?，是收集地下水的大型地下通道。在比水庫(kù)更低的位置，通常有幾公里長(zhǎng)的隧道，通過(guò)重力將水引出。像坎兒井這樣的地下水道系統(tǒng)在從埃及到中國(guó)的整個(gè)古代世界都有存在。

希臘水運(yùn)輸

The first Greek large-scale water management projects occurred in the 7th century BCE and were usually to supply communal drinking fountains. Both Samos and Athens were supplied by long-distance aqueducts from the 6th century BCE; the former was 2.5 km long and included the famous 1 km tunnel designed by Eupalinus of Megara. Pisistratus constructed an aqueduct of 15 to 25 cm wide ceramic pipes in the Ilissus valley, 8 km long.

? ? ? ? ? 希臘第一個(gè)大規(guī)模的水運(yùn)輸系統(tǒng)產(chǎn)生于公元前7世紀(jì)，為當(dāng)時(shí)的城邦提供公共飲用水。從公元前6世紀(jì)開始，薩摩斯和雅典都修建了長(zhǎng)距離的引水渠；前者長(zhǎng)2.5公里，包括由梅加拉的Eupalinus設(shè)計(jì)的著名的1公里隧道。庇西特拉圖在伊利索斯河谷建造了一條由15至25厘米寬的陶瓷管組成的水渠，長(zhǎng)8公里。

In the 4th century BCE, Priene in Asia Minor had a similar system of underground pipes which followed an artificial ditch covered in stone slabs. 3rd-century BCE Syracuse benefitted from no fewer than three aqueducts and Hellenistic Pergamon, c. 200 BCE, had some of the most sophisticated water management structures known at that time.

? ? ? ? ? 公元前4世紀(jì)，小亞細(xì)亞的普里恩有一個(gè)類似的地下管道系統(tǒng)，它沿著一條用石板覆蓋的人工溝渠將水輸送四方。公元前3世紀(jì)的錫拉庫(kù)扎受益于不少于三條水渠，公元前200年的希臘化時(shí)期的佩加蒙也擁有一些當(dāng)時(shí)已知最復(fù)雜的水運(yùn)輸系統(tǒng)。

羅馬引水渠

It is, however, the Romans who have rightly gained celebrity as the aqueduct builders par excellence. Hugely ambitious Roman engineering projects successfully mastered all kinds of difficult and dangerous terrain and made their magnificent arched aqueducts a common sight throughout the Roman Empire, supplying towns with water to meet not only basic needs but also those of large public Roman baths, decorative fountains (nymphaea) and private villas. Whilst most aqueducts continued to run along the surface and follow land contours wherever possible, the invention of the arch allowed for the construction of large-span structures, employing new materials such as concrete and waterproof cement, which could ignore unfavourable land features and draw the water along the straightest possible route along a regular gradient. Similarly, an increase in engineering expertise allowed for large-scale and deep tunnelling projects.

? ? ? ? ? 然而，羅馬人作為卓越的水渠建造者，理所當(dāng)然地贏得了名聲。雄心勃勃的羅馬工程項(xiàng)目成功地解決了各種困難和危險(xiǎn)的地形問(wèn)題，并使其宏偉的拱形水渠成為整個(gè)羅馬帝國(guó)的常見景觀。引水渠為城鎮(zhèn)供水，不僅滿足人們的日常需求，而且還滿足了羅馬大型公共浴室、裝飾性噴泉（nymphaea）和私人別墅的需求。雖然大多數(shù)引水渠繼續(xù)沿著地表修建，并盡可能地沿著土地輪廓修建，但拱門技術(shù)的發(fā)明允許人們建造大跨度的結(jié)構(gòu)，他們采用新的材料，如混凝土和防水水泥，可以忽略不利的地形，并以最直的路線沿著規(guī)則的坡度引水。同樣地，工程專業(yè)知識(shí)的增加使得大規(guī)模和深層的隧道工程能夠?qū)嵤?/strong>

Another innovation which allowed for aqueducts to cross valleys was the large-scale inverted siphon. These were made of clay or multiple lead pipes reinforced with stone blocks and with the force of gravity and pressure as the water ran down the valley the momentum gained could drive the water up the opposite side. Arched bridges running across the valley floor could lessen the height the water had to fall and more importantly, go up on its ascent. Stopcocks to manage pressure and regulate the water flow, storage reservoirs, settling tanks to extract sediment and mesh filters at outlets were other features of Roman aqueducts. Sometimes water was also 'freshened' by aerating it through a system of small cascades. Interestingly, Roman aqueducts were also protected by law and no agricultural activity was allowed near them in case of damage by ploughing and root growth. On the other hand, agriculture did benefit from aqueducts, as in many cases, run-off channels were created to provide water for land irrigation.

? ? ? ? ? 另一項(xiàng)允許引水渠跨越山谷的創(chuàng)新是大規(guī)模的倒虹吸管。這些管道是由粘土或多個(gè)鉛管用石塊加固而成的，當(dāng)水從山谷中流下時(shí)，借助重力和壓力，所獲得的動(dòng)力可以將水從對(duì)面沖上來(lái)。橫跨谷底的拱橋可以減少水的下降高度。更重要的是，在其上升過(guò)程中，水會(huì)上升。管理壓力和調(diào)節(jié)水流的止水栓、儲(chǔ)水池、提取沉積物的沉淀池和出口處的網(wǎng)狀過(guò)濾器是羅馬引水渠的另一特征。有時(shí)，水也會(huì)被“更新”，人們通過(guò)修建一個(gè)小瀑布系統(tǒng)使其通氣。有趣的是，羅馬引水渠也受到法律的保護(hù)，它不允許在其附近進(jìn)行農(nóng)業(yè)活動(dòng)，以防止耕作和作物根系生長(zhǎng)破壞水渠地基。另一方面，農(nóng)業(yè)從水渠中受益最多，因?yàn)樵谠S多情況下，創(chuàng)建的徑流渠道為土地灌溉提供水源。

The first aqueducts to serve Rome were the 16 km long Aqua Appia (312 BCE), the Anio Vetus (272-269 BCE) and the 91 km long Aqua Marcia (144-140 BCE). Steadily, the network increased and even created connections between aqueducts: the Aqua Tepula (126-125 BCE), Julia (33 BCE), Virgo (22-19 BCE), Alsietina (2 BCE), Aqua Claudia and Anio Novus (completed in 52 CE), Aqua Traiana (109 CE) and the Aqua Alexandrina (226 CE). Gradually, other aqueducts were built across Italy, for example, in Alatri (130-120 BCE) and Pompeii (c. 80 BCE). Julius Caesar built an aqueduct at Antioch, the first outside Italy. Augustus (r. 27 BCE - 14 CE) oversaw the construction of aqueducts at Carthage, Ephesus, and the 96 km aqueduct which served Naples. Indeed, the 1st century CE saw an explosion of aqueduct construction, perhaps connected to the spread of Roman culture and their love of bathing and fountains but also to meet the water needs of ever-larger population concentrations.

? ? ? ? ? 第一條為羅馬服務(wù)的引水渠是16公里長(zhǎng)的阿普阿皮亞引水渠（公元前312年），Anio Vetus（公元前272-269年）和91公里長(zhǎng)的Aqua Marcia（公元前144-140年）。水管網(wǎng)穩(wěn)步增加，甚至創(chuàng)造了水渠之間的連接：Aqua Tepula（公元前126-125年）、Julia（公元前33年）、Virgo（公元前22-19年）、Alsietina（公元前2年）、Aqua Claudia和Anio Novus（公元前52年完成）、Aqua Traiana（公元前109年）和Aqua Alexandrina（公元前226年）。漸漸地，其他水渠也在意大利各地修建，例如阿拉特里（公元前130-120年）和龐貝（約公元前80年）。凱撒大帝在安提阿建造了一個(gè)水渠，這是意大利以外的第一個(gè)水渠。奧古斯都（公元前27年-公元前14年）監(jiān)督了迦太基、以弗所和為那不勒斯服務(wù)的96公里的水渠的建設(shè)。事實(shí)上，在公元1世紀(jì)，水渠的建設(shè)出現(xiàn)了爆炸性的增長(zhǎng)，這也許與羅馬文化的傳播和他們對(duì)沐浴和噴泉的喜愛(ài)有關(guān)，但也是為了滿足越來(lái)越多的人口集中的用水需求。

From the 1st to the 2nd centuries CE, the very limits of architectural feasibility were stretched and some of the largest Roman aqueducts were constructed. These had two or three arcades of arches and reached prodigious heights. The aqueduct of Segovia was 28 m high and the Pont du Gard in southern France was 49 m in height, both of which still survive today as spectacular monuments to the skill and audacity of Roman engineers.

? ? ? ? ? 從公元1世紀(jì)到2世紀(jì)，建筑可行性的極限被拉長(zhǎng)，一些最大的羅馬水渠相繼出現(xiàn)。這些水渠有兩個(gè)或三個(gè)拱門，并有著驚人的高度。塞戈維亞的水渠高28米，法國(guó)南部的加爾橋高49米，這兩座水渠至今仍以展示羅馬工程師技能與膽識(shí)的身份而存在。

參考書目:

Cline, E.H. The Oxford Handbook of the Bronze Age Aegean. Oxford University Press, USA, 2012.

Grant, M. The History of Rome. Faber & Faber, London, 1993

Oleson, J.P. (ed.). The Oxford Handbook of Engineering and Technology in the Classical World [Paperback].. Oxford University Press, USA, 2012.

Vitruvius. On Architecture. Penguin Classics, 2009

原文作者：Mark Cartwright

????????? 駐意大利的歷史作家。他的主要興趣包括陶瓷、建筑、世界神話和發(fā)現(xiàn)所有文明的共同思想。他擁有政治哲學(xué)碩士學(xué)位，是《世界歷史百科全書》的出版總監(jiān)。

原文網(wǎng)址：https://www.worldhistory.org/aqueduct/

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