The railways were perhaps the most visible element of the Industrial Revolution for many. Trains powered by steam engines carried goods and people faster than ever before and reached new destinations, connecting businesses to new markets. There were also unfortunate consequences such as the decline in traditional transport like canal boats and stagecoaches, and the impact on unspoilt countryside.

? ? ? ? ? 對許多人來說，鐵路也許是工業(yè)革命中最引人注目的元素。由蒸汽機驅動的火車比以往任何時候都更快地運輸貨物和人員抵達新的目的地，將工廠與新市場連接起來。但工業(yè)革命也帶來了一些不幸的后果，例如運河船和驛站馬車等傳統(tǒng)交通工具的衰落，以及對原始鄉(xiāng)村的影響。

蒸 汽 機

The steam engine was perhaps the most important invention of the Industrial Revolution and without it, fast-moving trains would not have been possible. In 1698, a steam-powered pump was invented by Thomas Savery (c. 1650-1715). In 1712, Thomas Newcomen (1664-1729) adjusted Savery's design and greatly increased the power. James Watt (1736-1819) worked on Newcomen's design, and by 1778, he had greatly reduced the fuel consumption of the steam engine. Engineers continued to improve the engine until it worked using a pressure high enough to create the power capable of moving large weights with a minimum amount of fuel. In 1801, Richard Trevithick (1771-1833) invented the first steam-powered vehicle. Trevithick's machine was pretty good, but his real problem was the poor condition of the roads at that time. The inventor solved the problem in 1803 by having his vehicle run on purpose-built tracks of its own. The idea of a steam-powered railway train was born.

? ? ? ? ? 蒸汽機也許是工業(yè)革命中最重要的發(fā)明，沒有它，就不可能有快速行駛的火車。1698年，托馬斯·薩弗里（Thomas Savery，約1650-1715年）發(fā)明了蒸汽動力泵。1712 年，托馬斯·紐科門（Thomas Newcomen，1664-1729年）對薩弗里的設計進行了調整，大大提高了功率。詹姆斯·瓦特（1736-1819 年）對紐科門的設計進行了改進，到1778年，已經(jīng)大大降低了蒸汽機的燃料消耗。工程師們不斷改進蒸汽機，直到它的工作壓力足以產(chǎn)生用最少的燃料驅動大重量物體的動力。1801年，理查德·特雷維西克（1771-1833年）發(fā)明了第一輛蒸汽動力機車。特雷維西克的機器相當不錯，但他真正面臨的問題是當時糟糕的道路狀況。1803年，這位發(fā)明家讓他的機車在自己專門建造的軌道上行駛，從而解決了這一問題。蒸汽動力鐵路列車的想法由此誕生。

更換舊設備

The driving force behind the Industrial Revolution was commercial enterprise and the search for profit. Transportation was one area where a brand-new power source could really change how things were done. Traditionally, goods in larger quantities were transported across Britain by river and canal boats. Rivers were obviously limited to where they ran but a canal system was built to specifically connect large urban centres. Canal boats could transport goods safely and relatively cheaply, but the problem was the speed. Taking into consideration the necessity to go through lock systems where the terrain rose or fell, the average speed of a canal boat on its journey from one destination to another was around 4.8 km/h (3 mph). Not very impressive. It was usually quicker to transport goods from one continent to another than from one inland town to another. The land journey was the weak link. Another problem was that canals were very expensive to build. Investors and company owners saw that a cheaper but faster alternative to canals would reduce the time taken to reach markets for their goods and open up new markets if a network were built bigger and better than the existing canal system. A second area of potential was private travellers obliged to use horse-drawn stagecoaches, which were slow and uncomfortable. The railways, then, could serve two customer bases: freight companies and passengers.

? ? ? ? ? 工業(yè)革命背后的驅動力是企業(yè)商業(yè)化和對利潤的追求。在運輸領域，全新的動力源能夠真正改變人們的工作方式。傳統(tǒng)上，大量貨物通內河和運河船運往英國各地。河流顯然僅限于其流經(jīng)的地方，但運河系統(tǒng)是專門為連接大型城市中心而修建的。運河船可以安全、相對便宜地運輸貨物，但問題在于運輸速度?？紤]到必須通過地勢起伏的水閘系統(tǒng)，運河船從一個目的地到另一個目的地的平均速度約為4.8公里/小時（3英里/小時）。這不值一提。將貨物從一個大陸運到另一個大陸通常比從一個內陸城鎮(zhèn)運到另一個內陸城鎮(zhèn)要快，而陸路運輸也是薄弱環(huán)節(jié)。另一個問題是運河的建造成本非常高昂。投資者和公司所有者看到，如果能建造一個比現(xiàn)有運河系統(tǒng)更大、更好的運輸網(wǎng)絡，那么一個比運河更便宜但更快的替代方案將縮短貨物到達市場的時間，并開辟新的市場。第二個有潛力的領域是不得不使用馬車的私人旅行者，因為馬車既慢又不舒適。因此，鐵路可以服務于兩個客戶群：貨運公司與乘客。

史蒂芬生一家與“火箭號”

The first move towards finding an alternative to canals and river boats was to use wheeled carriages running on iron rails with the carriages pulled by horses. This sort of hybrid technology worked well sometimes (for example, on the short Surrey Iron Railway to Croydon) but was hardly the great leap forward big business was looking for. Trevithick's engine on rails showed the way. Next up came George Stephenson (1781-1848), who had his own company in Newcastle that specialised in building railway trains to transport coal over short distances at coal mines. Stephenson designed the Locomotion 1 train engine. This locomotive was powerful enough to pull carriages, and it transported the first steam railway passengers from Stockton to Darlington in the northeast of England in 1825. This line was a success and showed what might be achieved elsewhere on a grander scale as the age of steam took off.

? ? ? ? ? 為了找到運河運輸?shù)奶娲?，人們首先使用了在鐵軌上行駛的輪式車廂，車廂由馬匹拉動。這種混合技術有時效果不錯（例如，在通往克羅伊登的短途鐵軌鐵路上），但這并不是大公司所尋求的巨大飛躍。特雷維西克的鐵路機車指明了方向。緊隨其后的是喬治·史蒂芬生（1781-1848 年），他在紐卡斯爾擁有自己的公司，專門建造鐵路列車，用于在煤礦短途運輸煤炭。史蒂芬生設計了機車一號(Locomotion No.1)機車。這臺機車動力強勁，足以牽引車廂。1825年，它運送了從斯托克頓到英格蘭東北部達靈頓的第一批乘客。隨著蒸汽時代的到來，這條鐵路線取得了成功，并向人們展示了其他地方可以以更高的速度實現(xiàn)的目標。

A new railway line was built from Liverpool to Manchester in 1829, the world's first inter-city railway. The problem was the directors of the Liverpool & Manchester Railway Company (L&MR) did not have any locomotives for their line. The directors organised a competition, inviting inventors to the Rainhill Trials where their machines would be extensively tested for speed, reliability, ability to pull carriages, and total fuel and water consumption. The winning locomotive was Rocket, designed by George Stephenson's son Robert Stephenson (1803-1859). Stephenson's Rocket was essentially the sum of all the inventions up to that point regarding steam engines. Running with flanged wheels on smooth cast iron rails, Rocket's top speed was at least 48 km/h (30 mph), not great today but astounding for the people of the mid-19th century and something that had never been seen or experienced before. The L&MR directors immediately commissioned Stephenson to make four more Rocket locomotives, and their train line was opened on 15 September 1830. The line was a roaring success (despite the death of William Huskisson MP, run over by a locomotive on the very first day). Soon the line was carrying 1,200 passengers every day. Goods were also carried on the line where a single train could carry 20 times the cargo of a canal boat and reach its destination eight times faster. It was now merely a question of time before all of Britain had access to the railways.

? ? ? ? ? 1829年，一條從利物浦到曼徹斯特的新鐵路線建成，這是世界上第一條城際鐵路。問題是利物浦和曼徹斯特鐵路公司（Liverpool & Manchester Railway Company，L&MR）的董事們沒有為其線路配備機車。董事們組織了一次競賽，邀請發(fā)明家參加“雨山試驗”，在那里對他們的機車進行了廣泛的測試，包括速度、可靠性、牽引力以及燃料和水的總消耗量。最終，喬治·史蒂芬生的兒子羅伯特·史蒂芬生（1803-1859年）設計的 “火箭號”機車脫穎而出。史蒂芬生的“火箭號”蒸汽機車基本上集當時所有蒸汽機發(fā)明技術之總和。在光滑的鑄鐵軌道上使用帶凸緣的車輪，“火箭號”的最高時速至少為 48公里（30英里/小時），這在今天看來并不算高，但對于19世紀中葉的人們來說卻是驚人的，也是前所未有的。利物浦和曼徹斯特鐵路公司董事立即委托史蒂芬生再制造四臺“火箭號”機車，他們的火車線路于1830年9月15日開通。這條線路取得了巨大成功（盡管國會議員威廉·赫斯基森在開通第一天就被機車軋死）。很快，這條線路每天運送1200名乘客。貨物運輸也在這條線路上進行，一列火車的載貨量是運河船只的20倍，到達目的地的速度是運河船只的8倍。此時，全英國都能使用鐵路只是一個時間問題。

鐵路狂熱

The railway lines spread quickly. In 1838, Birmingham was connected to London, and in 1841, passengers could take the train from the capital to Bristol. The latter line was designed by Isambard Kingdom Brunel (1806-1859) and run by the innovative Great Western Railway which built Paddington Station in London. The line was another success and was later extended into Devon and Cornwall. The iron tracks spread so quickly across Britain, the phenomena became known as 'railway mania'. By 1845, there was a line from Manchester to London, which took eight hours of travel (a passenger on the old stagecoaches would have shaken and shivered for 80 hours to make the same journey). From 1848, passengers could travel from London to Glasgow in 12 hours as trains reached speeds of 80 km/h (50 mph). Newspapers boasted that fortunate businessmen could have breakfast in London, a business lunch in Birmingham, and be back again to dine in London, all in the same day. The trunk lines between major cities began to be connected by secondary lines to smaller cities and towns as the rail network became much denser across Britain. By 1870, there were over 24,000 kilometres (15,000 miles) of rail lines.

? ? ? ? ? 鐵路線迅速擴展。1838年，伯明翰與倫敦相連，1841年，乘客可以乘坐火車從首都前往布里斯托爾。后一條鐵路線由伊桑巴德·布魯內爾（Isambard Kingdom Brunel，1806-1859 年）設計，由大西部鐵路公司運營，該公司在倫敦修建了帕丁頓車站。這條鐵路線也取得了巨大成功，后來又延伸到德文郡和康沃爾郡。鐵軌在英國迅速蔓延，這種現(xiàn)象被稱為“鐵路狂熱”。到 1845 年，從曼徹斯特到倫敦的鐵路線已經(jīng)開通，全程僅需 8 小時（如果乘坐舊式驛車，同樣的路程需要搖晃和顛簸 80 個小時）。從 1848 年起，火車時速達到 80 公里/小時（50 英里/小時），乘客從倫敦到格拉斯哥只需 12 小時。報紙吹噓幸運的商人可以在倫敦吃早餐，在伯明翰吃商務午餐，然后再回到倫敦吃晚餐，所有這些都能在同一天內完成。隨著鐵路網(wǎng)變得更加密集，主要城市之間的干線開始由支線連接到較小的城市和城鎮(zhèn)。到 1870 年，英國鐵路線已超過 24,000 公里（15,000 英里）。

It was not all smooth running. Train lines required some major feats of engineering such as viaducts, tunnels, bridges, and the draining of marshlands. Early steam engines lacked the power to pull carriages up very steep inclines and so had to be helped by larger rope-hauling steam machines set by the track. The invention of mass-produced steel by Henry Bessemer (1813-1898) in 1856 allowed for rails that could carry heavier, more powerful, and faster trains, which meant these static engine assistants were no longer required.

? ? ? ? ? 并非所有的運行都一帆風順?；疖嚲€路需要一些重大的工程，如高架橋、隧道、橋梁和沼澤地排水。早期的蒸汽機動力不足，無法將車廂牽引上非常陡峭的斜坡，因此必須借助軌道旁的大型繩索牽引蒸汽機。1856 年，亨利·貝塞麥（1813-1898 年）發(fā)明了貝塞麥轉爐煉鋼法，使得鐵軌可以承載更重、更強、更快的火車，這意味著不再需要這些靜態(tài)的發(fā)動機輔助裝置。

As with many new technologies, parallel development meant that sometimes there were compatibility problems across regions. The Stephenson trains ran on rails with a gauge of 1.4 metres (4 ft 8.5 in). Brunel's trains ran on rails with a gauge of 2.1 metres (7 ft), better for the stability of the train when carrying heavy goods but more expensive to build. The 'gauge wars', as these technical differences became known, meant some stretches of line had three parallel rails so that both types of train could run on them. Otherwise, where this was not the case, passengers often had to disembark, luggage and all, and join a different train that could run on the alternative gauge tracks. For goods trains this was even more impractical creating delays reminiscent of a canal boat going through a series of locks, the very system trains were meant to replace. A Royal Commission was charged with investigating this damaging impediment to the progress of the railways, and eventually, the great gauge battle was settled in favour of the narrower gauge. Consequently, the railways were made uniform by an 1846 Act of Parliament.

? ? ? ? ? 與許多新技術一樣，并行開發(fā)有時會涉及區(qū)域之間的兼容性問題。史蒂芬生火車的軌距為 1.4 米（4 英尺 8.5 英寸）。布魯內爾的火車使用軌距為 2.1 米（7 英尺）的鋼軌，這種軌距更有利于火車在運載重型貨物時保持穩(wěn)定，但建造成本更高。這些技術上的差異被稱為“軌距之爭”，這意味著有些路段有三條平行的鐵軌，這樣兩種類型的列車都能在上面行駛。否則，乘客往往要帶著行李下車，換乘另一條可以在其他軌距軌道上運行的列車。對于貨物列車來說，這種做法更加不切實際，造成的延誤讓人聯(lián)想到運河船穿過一系列船閘，而火車正是要取代這種系統(tǒng)?；始椅瘑T會負責調查這一阻礙鐵路發(fā)展的破壞性因素，最終，大軌距之爭以窄軌距獲勝而告終。因此，1846 年的議會法案規(guī)定了鐵路統(tǒng)一標準。

There were other problems besides engineering ones. Some town councils and large estate owners blocked the building of train lines in their domains (Northampton and Stamford, for example), but this only meant that in the longer term, these places were left behind economically while a nearby rival town that had accepted the railways flourished. Many of those towns that had not accepted a main line were, in any case, eventually obliged to pressure the relevant railway company to build a branch line linking them to the rail network. In short, for good or bad, there was no going back to the old ways. By 1871, trains across Britain were carrying over 300 million passengers and over 150 million tonnes of goods each year.

? ? ? ? ? ?除了工程問題，還有其他問題。一些鎮(zhèn)議會和大莊園主阻止在其領地內修建火車線路（例如北安普頓和斯坦福德），但從長遠來看，這只能意味著這些地方在經(jīng)濟上被拋在后面，而附近已接受鐵路的對立城鎮(zhèn)則蓬勃發(fā)展。無論如何，許多沒有接受鐵路干線的城鎮(zhèn)最終不得不向相關鐵路公司施壓，要求修建一條支線，將它們與鐵路網(wǎng)連接起來?？傊瑹o論好壞，都沒有回頭路了。到 1871 年，全英國的火車每年運送乘客超過 3 億人次，運送貨物超過 1.5 億噸。

全球現(xiàn)象

The idea of railways spread around the world, and then innovations came back to Britain to improve the railways there. In the United States, the first working railroad was completed in 1833 and connected New York to Philadelphia. The immense size of the USA had always been a problem, but now the railroads forged ahead, meaning that the huge resources such a great land produced could be, at last, fully exploited.

? ? ? ? ? 鐵路的理念傳播到世界各地，然后創(chuàng)新又傳回英國，以改進那里的鐵路。在美國，第一條運營鐵路于 1833 年建成，連接紐約和費城。美國幅員遼闊，這一直是個問題，但現(xiàn)在，鐵路的發(fā)展，意味著這片廣袤土地上蘊藏的巨大資源終于可以得到充分開發(fā)。

The first railway line in Continental Europe was completed in Belgium in 1835 to connect Brussels and Malines. The American engineer George Pullman (1831-1897) created the first sleeping cars in 1856 which used seat cushions which could be moved to create a sleeping berth. In 1868, the New Yorker George Westinghouse (1846-1914) developed a trio of successful inventions: the air brake, which used compressed air to quickly stop the wheels turning, a signal system, and the frog that meant a train could cross intersecting tracks. By 1870, Canada, Australia, India, and most of Europe had joined in the railway mania. Trains were becoming ever more ambitious in the distance and comfort they promised their passengers. The luxurious Orient Express ran from 1883 and connected Paris to Constantinople (Istanbul). The railroads became a symbol of the modern age, but not everyone benefitted or liked this new and faster world.

? ? ? ? ? 歐洲大陸的第一條鐵路線于 1835 年在比利時建成，連接布魯塞爾和梅赫倫。1856 年，美國工程師喬治·普爾曼（George Pullman，1831-1897 年）發(fā)明了第一輛臥鋪車廂。1868 年，紐約人喬治·威斯汀豪斯（George Westinghouse，1846-1914 年）開發(fā)出了三項成功的發(fā)明：空氣制動器（使用壓縮空氣快速阻止車輪旋轉）、信號系統(tǒng)和允許火車穿過相交鐵軌的道岔裝置，這意味著火車可以穿越交叉的鐵軌。到 1870 年，加拿大、澳大利亞、印度和歐洲大部分國家都加入了鐵路狂熱的行列?；疖囋谙虺丝统兄Z的距離和舒適度方面變得越來越雄心勃勃。豪華的東方快車從 1883 年開始運行，連接巴黎和君士坦丁堡（伊斯坦布爾）。鐵路成為現(xiàn)代的象征，但并不是每個人都能從中受益，也不是每個人都喜歡這個更快的新世界。

鐵路帶來的影響

At first, many train companies bought out the canals in their area so that they could control the competition. Many canals were kept running, but eventually, they simply could not compete with the trains, and the canal system fell into neglect. The other direct competitor of trains, the stagecoaches, fared no better. Stagecoach and mail coach operators, coaching inns dotted along the roads, turnpike roads (private roads which charged a passage toll), and those who bred and cared for horses all suffered badly as trains took their business. As an example of the decline, before the railways, 29 stagecoaches travelled from Manchester to Liverpool every day, but after the arrival of the trains, there were only two providing this service.

? ? ? ? ? 起初，許多火車公司收購了所在地區(qū)的運河，以便控制競爭。許多運河得以繼續(xù)運行，但最終還是無法與火車競爭，運河系統(tǒng)逐漸荒廢。火車的另一個直接競爭對手——驛站馬車的情況也好不到哪里去。由于火車搶走了他們的生意，驛站馬車和郵車經(jīng)營者、遍布公路兩旁的驛站、收費公路（收取通行費的私人公路）以及那些飼養(yǎng)和照顧馬匹的人都遭受了重創(chuàng)。鐵路開通前，每天有 29 輛驛馬車從曼徹斯特前往利物浦，但火車開通后，只有兩輛驛站馬車提供這項服務。

People had to leave their homes and family land to make way for the metal tracks being laid everywhere. Private Acts of Parliament were passed for each line, and these gave the railway companies the right to buy the land they needed and evict anyone that blocked the building plans. People worried that passing trains scared livestock and disrupted forest hunting. Finally, air pollution, both from the trains themselves and the coal mines that fed them, noticeably worsened.

? ? ? ? ?人們不得不離開家園和自留地，為到處鋪設的金屬鐵軌讓路。每條鐵路線都通過了《議會私人法案》，這些法案賦予鐵路公司購買所需土地和驅逐任何阻撓建設計劃的人的權利。人們擔心火車經(jīng)過時會驚嚇到牲畜，破壞森林狩獵活動。最后，火車本身和為火車提供燃料的煤礦造成的空氣污染明顯加劇。

There were many positives to the new railways besides cheaper and faster transportation of people and goods. Steam trains needed huge amounts of coal, which resulted in more mines and more jobs (far more than were lost in other areas). The steel and iron needed for the locomotives, carriages, rails, bridges, and tunnels caused a boom in those industries. Britain produced annually just 2.5 million tonnes of coal in 1700, but by 1900, this figure had rocketed to 224 million tonnes. The railways created vast construction projects which employed tens of thousands of labourers. The railway companies also needed engineers, drivers, stationmasters, ticket collectors, and in the stations were porters, lavatory attendants, and staff for refreshment rooms as millions of first-, second-, and third-class passengers were now using the train services regularly.

? ? ? ? ? 除了更便宜、更快捷的人員和貨物運輸外，新鐵路還有許多積極意義。蒸汽火車需要大量的煤炭，這創(chuàng)造了更多的礦山和更多的就業(yè)機會（比其他地方失去的就業(yè)機會多得多）。機車、車廂、鐵軌、橋梁和隧道所需的鋼鐵也促進了這些行業(yè)的繁榮。1700 年，英國的煤炭年產(chǎn)量僅為 250 萬噸，而到了 1900 年，這一數(shù)字猛增至 2.24 億噸。鐵路帶來了龐大的建設項目，雇傭了數(shù)以萬計的工人。鐵路公司還需要工程師、司機、站長、收票員，車站還需要搬運工、盥洗室服務員和茶水間工作人員，因為有數(shù)百萬一等、二等和三等艙乘客定期乘坐火車。

Factory owners could now build their factories anywhere, no longer restricted to sites close to waterways or coal fields. Outer suburbs developed in cities as workers commuted by train to their jobs in city centres. The cost of raw materials decreased and business practices changed. Manufacturers no longer had to keep a large inventory of goods but could move them on as soon as ready. The cost savings of reduced warehouses meant more money and factory space could be devoted to manufacturing, further bringing down costs and creating more jobs.

? ? ? ? ? 工廠主可以在任何地方建廠，不再局限于靠近水道或煤田的地方。工人們乘火車前往市中心上班，城市的外圍郊區(qū)也隨之發(fā)展起來。原材料成本降低，經(jīng)營方式也發(fā)生了變化。制造商不再需要保留大量的貨物庫存，而是可以在貨物準備就緒后立即轉移。減少倉儲成本，這意味著有更多的資金和工廠空間可以用于生產(chǎn)，從而進一步降低了成本，創(chuàng)造了更多的就業(yè)機會。

As the trains connected more and more towns, people could travel to places they had never or very seldom been to. Seaside resorts, in particular, boomed thanks to cheap weekend excursion tickets and factory workers forming clubs which were paid into regularly to save up for a works outing. Places like Blackpool, Scarborough, and Brighton became familiar names around the country, conjuring up images of fun and holidays by the sea. The same worked for schools as children could now travel to prestigious private institutions far from home.

? ? ? ? ? 隨著火車將越來越多的城鎮(zhèn)連接起來，人們可以去從未去過或很少去過的地方旅行。特別是海濱度假勝地，由于周末短途旅行票價便宜，工廠工人們成立了俱樂部，定期繳納會費，為工作旅行攢錢，從而使海濱度假勝地蓬勃發(fā)展起來。布萊克浦（Blackpool）、斯卡伯勒（Scarborough）和布萊頓（Brighton）等地成為全國人民耳熟能詳?shù)拿?，讓人?lián)想到海濱樂趣和度假的景象。學校也是如此，孩子們現(xiàn)在可以到離家很遠的著名私立學校上學。

The ever-greater efficiency of trains meant goods could be transported more cheaply, and so they became more affordable to more people. Businesses could now sell their products to new markets. Products like fresh fish were available in inland areas for the first time. This resulted in a boom in advertising as the physical distance between businesses and their customers grew. Train stations became mass gathering places of humanity and so were perfect locations in which to advertise.

? ? ? ? ? 火車效率的提高使得運輸更便宜的貨物成為可能，因此更多人也能負擔得起。企業(yè)可以將其產(chǎn)品銷售到新市場。鮮魚等產(chǎn)品首次在內陸地區(qū)上市。隨著企業(yè)與客戶之間的實際距離拉近，廣告業(yè)也隨之蓬勃發(fā)展?；疖囌境蔀榱巳罕娋奂?，因此也是廣告宣傳的絕佳地點。

Trains carried mail, which became cheaper than ever after Sir Henry Cole (1808-1882) created the Universal Penny Post in 1840 where senders used the famous Penny Black postage stamps. Trains allowed someone in Scotland to read the morning newspaper issued that day in London. The whole world seemed to have shrunk, and people, goods, and information whizzed from one place to another at a pace never before imagined. The celebrated author Thomas Hardy (1840-1928) was not exaggerating when he noted that the railways had brought more change than any other development since the Norman conquest of England in 1066.

? ? ? ? ? 1840 年，亨利·科爾爵士（1808-1882 年）創(chuàng)建了通用便士郵政，寄信人使用著名的黑便士郵票，此后，火車運送郵件變得比以往任何時候都便宜?；疖嚳梢宰屘K格蘭人閱讀當天倫敦發(fā)行的早報。整個世界似乎縮小了，人員、貨物和信息以前所未有的速度從一個地方飛馳到另一個地方。著名作家托馬斯·哈代（Thomas Hardy，1840-1928 年）毫不夸張地指出，自 1066 年諾曼人征服英格蘭以來，鐵路帶來的變化比任何其他事件都多。

參考書目：

Allen, Robert C. The British Industrial Revolution in Global Perspective. Cambridge University Press, 2011.

Armstrong, Benjamin. Britain 1783-1885. Hodder Education, 2020.

Bryan, Tim. Brunel. Ian Allan Publishing, 2023.

Corey, Melinda & Ochoa, George. The Encyclopedia of the Victorian World. Henry Holt & Co, 1996.

Dugan, Sally & Dugan, David. The Day the World Took Off. Channel 4 Book, 2023.

Hepplewhite, Peter. All About. Wayland, 2016.

Hewitt, Eric J. Capital of Discontent. The History Press, 2014.

Horn, Jeff. The Industrial Revolution. ABC-CLIO, 2016.

Waller, David & Foster, Norman. Iron Men. Anthem Press, 2016.

Yorke, Stan. The Industrial Revolution Explained& Massive Wheels. Countryside Books, 2005.

原文作者：Mark Cartwright

????????? 駐意大利的歷史作家。他的主要興趣包括陶瓷、建筑、世界神話和發(fā)現(xiàn)所有文明的共同思想。他擁有政治哲學碩士學位，是《世界歷史百科全書》的出版總監(jiān)。

原文網(wǎng)址：https://www.worldhistory.org/article/2167/the-railways-in-the-british-industrial-revolution/