The Portuguese first took an interest in East Africa from the beginning of the 16th century as their empire spread eastwards across the Indian Ocean. Trade in the region was already well-established and carried out by Africans, Indians, and Arabs. Attacks on the trading cities of the Swahili Coast and the Kingdom of Mutapa by the Portuguese did not bring any tangible benefits as traders simply moved to the north. Consequently, the Europeans decided to concentrate on the area which became Portuguese East Africa (aka Portuguese Mozambique) further south. Mozambique was settled by Portuguese who integrated with local communities in the country's interior. Mozambique remained a Portuguese colony until independence was achieved in 1975.

? ? ? ? ? 16 世紀初，葡萄牙人開始對東非產生了興趣，當時他們的帝國向東橫跨印度洋。非洲人、印度人和阿拉伯人已經在該地區(qū)建立了良好的貿易體系。葡萄牙人對斯瓦希里海岸和穆塔帕王國貿易城市的攻擊并沒有帶來任何實際的好處，因為商人只是轉移到了北方。因此，歐洲人決定將注意力集中在后來成為葡屬東非（又名葡屬莫桑比克）的更南地區(qū)。莫桑比克曾是葡萄牙人的殖民地，葡萄牙人與該國內陸的當?shù)厣鐓^(qū)融為一體，在 1975 年實現(xiàn)獨立之前一直是葡萄牙的殖民地。

斯瓦希里海岸

The Swahili Coast, located on the shores of East Africa, was a region where Africans, Arabs, and Muslim traders mixed to create a unique identity from the 8th century called Swahili Culture. Swahili is the name of their language and means 'people of the coast.' The coast prospered from the 12th to 15th century thanks to its profusion of small islands and natural harbours. 35 independent trading cities like Mombasa, Mogadishu, and Zanzibar established lucrative trade contacts with African tribes in the interior and states across the Indian Ocean such as Arabia, India, and even China. Gold, ivory, tortoise shells, animal hides, and slaves came from Africa’s interior to be traded for Asian goods like silk, spices, incense, Ming porcelain, glassware, coral, and jewellery.

? ? ? ? ? 位于東非海岸的斯瓦希里海岸是非洲、阿拉伯和穆斯林商人混合的地區(qū)，從8世紀開始創(chuàng)造了一種獨特的身份，稱為斯瓦希里文化。斯瓦希里是他們語言的名稱，意思是 “海岸的人民”。由于大量的小島和天然良港，海岸在 12 世紀和 15 世紀之間繁榮起來。蒙巴薩、摩加迪沙、桑給巴爾等35個貿易城市與非洲內陸部落以及阿拉伯、印度乃至中國等大洋彼岸的國家建立了有利可圖的貿易往來。黃金、象牙、龜甲、獸皮和奴隸來自非洲內陸，用來換取亞洲商品，如絲綢、香料、熏香、明代瓷器、玻璃器皿、珊瑚和珠寶。

Then, in the final years of the 15th century, the Portuguese arrived to upset this century-old balance of trade. The first momentous move in this game of empires came with the 1498-1499 voyage of Vasco da Gama (c. 1469-1524). The Portuguese explorer had audaciously sailed around the Cape of Good Hope and up the east coast of Africa before sailing east to India. He thus opened up a maritime route between Europe and India, but he had also noted the trade ships laden with valuables anchored in the African Swahili ports.

? ? ? ? ? 15 世紀末，葡萄牙人到來，打破了已有數(shù)百年歷史的貿易平衡。1498 年至 1499 年，瓦斯科·達·伽馬 (Vasco de Gama，約 1469-1524 年) 開始了這場帝國博弈的第一次重要運動。這位葡萄牙探險家大膽地繞過好望角，沿著非洲東海岸航行，然后向東航行到印度。他因此開辟了歐洲和印度之間的海上航線，但他也注意到了停泊在非洲斯瓦希里港口的滿載貴重物品的商船。

From 1502, the Portuguese were intent on muscling in on the region’s trade, and they set about sinking ships, destroying cities, and building forts to achieve that goal. The Portuguese had a secondary objective in their attacks in East Africa, and this was to damage the Islamic world in any way possible. The Swahili Coast was very much a Muslim-dominated area of Africa, as noted by the historian P. Curtin: "The Muslim religion ultimately became one of the central elements of Swahili identity. To be a Swahili, in later centuries, meant to be a Muslim" (125).

? ? ? ? ? 從1502年開始，葡萄牙人就打算介入該地區(qū)的貿易，他們開始擊沉船只，摧毀城市，并建造堡壘以實現(xiàn)這一目標。葡萄牙人在東非的攻擊有一個次要目標，那就是對伊斯蘭世界造成盡可能多的破壞。斯瓦希里海岸在很大程度上是一個以穆斯林為主的非洲地區(qū)，正如歷史學家菲利普·迪爾蒙·柯丁所指出：“穆斯林宗教最終成為斯瓦希里人身份認同的核心要素之一。在后來的幾個世紀里，成為一名斯瓦希里人就意味著成為穆斯林”（125）。

Those who followed in Vasco da Gama’s wake sought one thing: total control of the Indian Ocean trade network. The Portuguese had superior weapons, and they used them to cause havoc amongst the Swahili city-states whose rivalries (for example, between the sultans of Malindi and Mombasa) prevented them from forming a unified response to this new and deadly threat. Achieving dominance with relative ease in the region, Portuguese settlers and merchants would eventually establish themselves at various points along the Swahili coast such as Malindi, Mombasa, Pemba, Sofala, and Kilwa. Many non-Portuguese traders continued their commerce, too, as the Portuguese found they could not police the entire Ocean, and cooperation proved more lucrative than confrontation.

? ? ? ? ? ?那些追隨瓦斯科·達·伽馬的人正在尋求一件事：完全控制印度洋貿易網絡。葡萄牙人擁有先進的武器，他們利用這些武器在斯瓦希里城邦中造成破壞，這些城邦之間的競爭（例如，馬林迪蘇丹和蒙巴薩蘇丹之間的競爭）阻止了他們對這一致命的新威脅做出統(tǒng)一反應。相對容易地控制了該地區(qū)后，葡萄牙定居者和商人將在斯瓦希里海岸的各個地方定居，例如馬林迪、蒙巴薩、奔巴島、索法拉和基爾瓦。許多非葡萄牙商人也繼續(xù)從事商業(yè)活動，因為葡萄牙人發(fā)現(xiàn)他們無法控制整個大洋，而合作證明比對抗更有利可圖。

The Portuguese established colonies in India, notably at Portuguese Goa (1510), which became the capital of the Estado da India (the Portuguese Empire east of the Cape of Good Hope). The Portuguese fully intended to control both sides of the Indian Ocean. As more colonies were established in India, the Swahili Coast was repeatedly attacked from these bases. Already in 1505, the city of Kilwa was blasted into ruins by Portuguese cannons, taken over, and refortified. Fortresses were built along the coast of East Africa, notably at Sofala in 1505, Mozambique Island in 1507, and Shama in 1526.

? ? ? ? ? 葡萄牙人在印度建立了殖民地，特別是在葡萄牙果阿（1510年），果阿成為殖民印度（好望角以東的葡萄牙帝國）的基地。葡萄牙人完全打算控制印度洋的兩岸。隨著更多的殖民地在印度的建立，斯瓦希里海岸屢次從這些基地受到攻擊。早在1505年，基爾瓦城就被葡萄牙人的大炮炸成了廢墟，再次被征服并加固，堡壘遍布非洲東海岸。（1505 年索法拉、1507 年莫桑比克島、1526 年沙馬）

In 1536, the port of Massawa in the Kingdom of Abyssinia (aka the Ethiopian Empire) was captured. The ruler of Abyssinia was not too upset at the loss as he acquired firearms from the Europeans, which proved useful in his own battles with rival forces in the region. The Portuguese were delighted to find Abyssinia a Christian kingdom and an ally against what seemed an Islamic-dominated East Africa. Things went well at first when, in 1543, the Portuguese helped the Ethiopians defeat the armies of Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi (c. 1506-1543), leader of the Adal Sultanate in the north. Unfortunately, the Jesuit missionaries from Portugal and indigenous Coptic priests in Abyssinia became anything but allies, and a civil war brought about the expulsion of the Europeans.

? ? ? ? ? 1536年，阿比西尼亞王國（又稱埃塞俄比亞帝國）的馬薩瓦港被占領。阿比西尼亞的統(tǒng)治者對這一損失并不感到沮喪，因為他從歐洲人那里獲得了火器，事實證明這些火器在他自己與該地區(qū)敵對勢力的戰(zhàn)斗中很有用。葡萄牙人很高興地發(fā)現(xiàn)阿比西尼亞是一個基督教王國，并且是對抗看似由伊斯蘭教主導的東非的盟友。1543年，葡萄牙人幫助埃塞俄比亞人擊敗了北部阿達爾蘇丹國領袖艾哈邁德·伊本·易卜拉欣·加齊（Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi，約1506-1543）的軍隊，起初事情進展順利。不幸的是，來自葡萄牙的耶穌會傳教士和阿比西尼亞的本土科普特教士發(fā)生沖突，內戰(zhàn)以驅逐歐洲人而告終

A much more serious flaw in Portugal’s foreign policy in the region was the total lack of interest in establishing any mutually beneficial trade arrangements with the Swahili cities or interior African kingdoms. The ports the Portuguese held were essentially mere collecting points for commodities. Nor was any lasting form of administration established. The Portuguese merely wanted to extract everything and anything of value at as little cost as possible, preferably zero. As the Portuguese presence grew, so they were able to take an even more aggressive stance against rival traders. Ships were blown out of the water, and trade goods were confiscated. The result of this rapacious policy was that traders moved northwards, and the Swahili coast went into serious decline.

? ? ? ? ? 葡萄牙在該地區(qū)的外交政策有一個更嚴重的缺陷，就是完全沒有興趣與斯瓦希里城市或非洲內陸王國建立互惠互利的貿易協(xié)定。葡萄牙港口只是貨物的儲存點，沒有建立任何類型的長期管理機構。葡萄牙人想要的無非就是以盡可能低的成本，最好是零成本，榨取任何有價值的東西。隨著影響力的擴大，他們能夠對商業(yè)競爭對手采取更激進的立場。船只被擊沉，商品被沒收。這種貪婪政策的結果是商人北遷，斯瓦希里海岸陷入深度衰落。

穆塔帕

As traders drifted away, the Portuguese then went for the next best thing, which was to find the goods at the source. To this end, in 1530 they took a greater interest in the Kingdom of Mutapa in the far south (modern northern Zimbabwe and southern Zambia). The Bantu-speaking Shona peoples of Mutapa (established c. 1450) had inherited the region’s trade network from its predecessor Great Zimbabwe (c. 1100 - c. 1550). Goods from Mutapa, like gold and ivory, were traded with Sofala, an outpost controlled by the most southern Swahili city of Kilwa. From 1530, the Portuguese tried to establish trade markets (feiras) within Mutapa, but their interference in local affairs, particularly their attempts to spread Christianity, brought them into conflict with the Mutapa rulers. In a familiar tale of colonial interference, the kingdom descended into a period of civil wars. A small number of Portuguese landowners clung onto the garrisoned forts at Sena, Tete, and Zumbo in the Zambezi valley.

? ? ? ? ? 隨著商人們的漸行漸遠，葡萄牙人便開始了下一步的行動，那就是在源頭上尋找貨物。為此，1530年，他們對遙遠的南部（現(xiàn)代津巴布韋北部和贊比亞南部）的穆塔帕王國產生了更大的興趣。穆塔帕（約1450年建立）的講班圖語的紹納人從其前身大津巴布韋（約1100-約1550年）繼承了該地區(qū)的貿易網絡。來自穆塔帕的貨物，如黃金和象牙，與索法拉進行貿易，索法拉是由最南部的斯瓦希里城市基爾瓦控制的前哨。從1530年起，葡萄牙人試圖在穆塔帕建立貿易市場（feiras），但他們對當?shù)厥聞盏母深A，尤其是傳播基督教的嘗試，使他們與穆塔帕統(tǒng)治者發(fā)生了沖突。在殖民干涉的典型案例中，王國進入了內戰(zhàn)時期。少數(shù)葡萄牙地主緊緊抓住贊比西河谷的Sena、Tete和Zumbo的駐軍堡壘。

Further north, the Portuguese were still causing havoc along the Swahili coast, exploiting the rivalries between cities and capturing Mombasa in 1593. A huge fort, Fort Jesus, was then built at Mombasa, which acted as a regional headquarters for the Portuguese. In 1633, a new strategy was adopted in Mutapa and, with the help of Portuguese settlers who had married local women, the Portuguese took over the kingdom completely. Unfortunately, Mutapa was nowhere near as rich in gold as had been hoped for; this was no Inca or Aztec civilization that their great rival Spain was plundering in the Americas.

The decline in East African trade, the disappointment in the non-existent riches of Mutapa, and the fatal problem of tropical diseases resulted in the Portuguese Crown abandoning its ambitions on the Swahili Coast, and instead, they focused on Mozambique Island located between the Swahili Coast in the north and Mutapa in the south. Batua, another Shona kingdom, took over what was left of Mutapa in 1693.

? ? ? ? ? 再往北，葡萄牙人仍在斯瓦希里海岸肆虐，利用城市間的競爭并于 1593 年征服了蒙巴薩，在那里建造了一座巨大的堡壘耶穌堡，作為葡萄牙人在該地區(qū)的總部。1633年，在穆塔帕采取了新的策略，在與當?shù)貗D女結婚的葡萄牙定居者的幫助下，葡萄牙人完全接管了這個王國。不幸的是，穆塔帕的黃金資源遠沒有想象中的那么豐富；這不是葡萄牙人的強力對手西班牙在美洲掠奪的印加或阿茲特克文明所能媲美的。

? ? ? ? ? 東非貿易的衰落，對穆塔帕不存在的財富的失望，以及熱帶疾病的致命問題，導致葡萄牙王室放棄了對斯瓦希里海岸的野心，轉而將注意力放在位于北部斯瓦希里海岸和南部穆塔帕之間的莫桑比克島。1693年，另一個紹納王國巴圖阿（Batua）接管了穆塔帕的剩余部分。

葡屬東非 (áfrica Oriental Portuguesa)

The area of what is today Mozambique was first inhabited by Bantu-speaking people who had arrived in the area as part of the Bantu migration from the 1st to 4th century. The famed Chinese mariner-explorer Admiral Zheng He (aka Cheng Ho, c. 1371-1433) visited Mozambique in the first quarter of the 15th century. Arab traders had settled in the area by the end of that century. Vasco da Gama had stopped to resupply his ships there in 1498, and the Portuguese had no doubt made a record of the coasts’ potential for colonization. The first Portuguese settlers arrived on Mozambique Island from 1506, and a captaincy was created where land was parcelled out for development. The Crown controlled all trade to and from Mozambique, making it an extremely profitable colony. By the mid-16th century, however, it was discovered that Mozambique was not as gold-rich as hoped. There was some trade to be done at a local level, and ivory was a potential earner but proved too difficult to obtain and too bulky a commodity to make huge profits from.

? ? ? ? ? 現(xiàn)今的莫桑比克地區(qū)最初居住著講班圖語的人，他們在1至4世紀作為班圖人移民的一部分到達該地區(qū)。中國著名航海家、探險家鄭和（約1371-1433年）在15世紀上半葉訪問了莫桑比克。在該世紀末，阿拉伯商人已在該地區(qū)定居。1498年，瓦斯科·達·伽馬（Vasco da Gama）曾在此停船補給，葡萄牙人無疑意識到了該海岸的殖民潛力。第一批葡萄牙定居者于1506年抵達莫桑比克島，并設立了一個船長區(qū)，將土地分割出來用于開發(fā)。葡萄牙王室控制了進出莫桑比克的所有貿易，使其成為一個利潤極高的殖民地。然而，到了16世紀中期，人們發(fā)現(xiàn)莫桑比克的黃金并不像預期的那么豐富。在當?shù)赜幸恍┵Q易可以做，象牙是一個潛在的收入來源，但事實證明，獲得象牙太難了，而且象牙太笨重了，無法從中獲得巨大的利潤。

Mozambique became a part of the Estado da India from 1571. Carrack trade ships plied the Indian Ocean regularly between Mozambique and Goa as part of the route known as the carreira da India. As in other Portuguese colonies, many European immigrants were undesirables (degredados), shipped by the authorities to free Portugal of them. These reluctant travellers included convicts, beggars, reformed prostitutes, orphans, and religious dissidents. The coastal towns soon developed European architecture, especially villas, churches, and paved thoroughfares. Meanwhile, many Portuguese moved inland and integrated with local tribes, intermarrying and often adopting the lifestyle and even the appearance of Mozambique Africans. A system developed known as prazo, where African chiefs gave land and trade and tribute rights to Portuguese and Afro-Portuguese, an appointment then formally recognised by the Portuguese Crown. In return, the appointee (a muzungo) had to ensure justice was carried out in his territory, supervise traditional rituals, and approve chiefs of smaller villages in their jurisdiction. To maintain their position, muzungos had a private army of retainers (chicunda) which could number several thousand Africans. By 1637, there were at least 80 prazos, and most acted independently of the weak Portuguese administration at the capital Maputo.

? ? ? ? ? 莫桑比克從1571年起成為葡屬印度的一部分。帆船貿易船定期在莫桑比克和果阿之間的印度洋上航行，作為被稱為carreira da India路線的一部分。與其他葡萄牙殖民地一樣，許多歐洲移民是不受歡迎的人（degredados），由當局運送到殖民地，以使葡萄牙擺脫他們。這些非自愿的旅行者包括罪犯、乞丐、改過自新的妓女、孤兒和宗教異見者。沿海城鎮(zhèn)很快出現(xiàn)了歐洲建筑，特別是別墅、教堂和鋪砌的道路。同時，許多葡萄牙人移居內陸，與當?shù)夭柯淙诤?、通婚，并經常采用莫桑比克非洲人的生活方式，甚至是外觀。一個被稱為prazo（或prazo da coroa）的系統(tǒng)發(fā)展起來，非洲酋長將土地和貿易及進貢權交給葡萄牙人和非洲裔葡萄牙人，這種任命當時得到了葡萄牙王室的正式承認。作為回報，被任命者（muzungo）必須確保司法在其領土上得到執(zhí)行，監(jiān)督傳統(tǒng)儀式，并批準其管轄范圍內的小村莊的酋長。為了維護自己的地位，被任命者（muzungo）擁有一支由家丁（chicunda）組成的私人軍隊，人數(shù)可達數(shù)千人。到1637年，至少存在有80個prazo，大多數(shù)prazo獨立于位于首都馬普托的葡萄牙政府。

The Dutch attacked many Portuguese colonies in the early 17th century, and Mozambique did not escape. The Dutch East India Company launched raids in 1607 and 1608. The Portuguese did entertain hopes of crossing the African interior and creating a geographical link with Portuguese Angola on the other side of Africa, but the advance of the British from southern Africa northwards ended this dream. Tellingly, both the British and Dutch had superior ships to those of the Portuguese, but there was also a threat from the Omani Arabs of the Persian Gulf who were keen to keep hold of their Red Sea trade routes. The Omani moved in on the Swahili coast and captured Portuguese Mombasa in 1698. The Portuguese briefly recaptured it in the 1720s, but put simply, the Portuguese Empire, a string of trading ports that spanned the globe, was too large to maintain without any significant land occupation to provide local troops to defend it. Following more victories by the Omani, the Portuguese were left with only Mozambique to show for all their efforts on the east coast of Africa.

? ? ? ? ? 荷蘭人在17世紀初襲擊了許多葡萄牙殖民地，莫桑比克也沒能逃脫。荷蘭東印度公司在1607年和1608年對莫桑比克發(fā)動了進攻。葡萄牙人希望進入非洲內陸，與葡萄牙安哥拉建立地理聯(lián)系，于大陸的另一邊，但英國從南非向北推進結束了這個夢想。英國人和荷蘭人都比葡萄牙人擁有明顯的海軍優(yōu)勢，但也存在來自波斯灣的阿曼阿拉伯人的威脅，他們渴望保持對紅海貿易路線的控制。阿曼人到達斯瓦希里海岸并于 1698 年征服了蒙巴薩。葡萄牙人在18世紀20年代曾短暫地奪回了蒙巴薩，但簡單地說，葡萄牙帝國有著一連串的貿易港口散布在全球各地，如果沒有任何重要的土地占領以提供當?shù)剀婈爜肀Ｐl(wèi)它，就無法維持。在阿曼人取得更多的勝利后，葡萄牙人在非洲東海岸的所有努力只剩下了莫桑比克。

From 1752, Mozambique became a separate administration from the Estado da India and Goa. The colony’s governor was now responsible to Lisbon directly. The slave trade grew from Mozambique in the mid-18th century as demand boomed for slaves to work on the French sugar plantations on Reunion and Mauritius. In the 19th century, there was more settlement of the interior and much exploration by scientists as Mozambique became a full territorial colony and not merely a strip of coastal strongholds and disconnected interior estates.

? ? ? ? ? 從1752年起，莫桑比克成為獨立于葡屬印度管理機構的地區(qū)。該殖民地的總督直接向里斯本負責。18世紀中葉，隨著法國殖民地留尼旺島和毛里求斯的甘蔗種植園對工人的需求增加，來自莫桑比克的奴隸貿易有所增長。在 19 世紀，隨著莫桑比克成為一個成熟的殖民領土，而不僅僅是沿海防御工事和孤立的腹地，內陸有了更多的定居點，也有更多的科學探索。

While some private traders prospered, the Portuguese Crown did not gain very much from Mozambique in the end. Indigenous resistance and a marked preference by Portuguese migrants for a colony like Portuguese Brazil meant that the Portuguese Crown abandoned attempts at direct control and instead gave out swathes of the region to private companies to develop from 1891. One such company was the Niassa Company which ruthlessly confiscated agricultural surpluses from the indigenous farmers. Another was the Mozambique Company that grabbed slaves for use on colonial sugar plantations. In the late 19th century, the colony officially became Portuguese East Africa.

? ? ? ? ? 盡管一些私人商人生意興隆，但葡萄牙王室最終并沒有從莫桑比克得到多少。本土抵抗和葡萄牙移民對巴西這樣的殖民地的明顯偏愛導致葡萄牙王室放棄了獲得直接控制權的企圖，將大片領土割讓給私營公司進行開發(fā)。其中一家公司是尼亞薩特許公司，該公司無情地沒收了當?shù)剞r民的農業(yè)盈余。另一家是莫桑比克公司，該公司為甘蔗種植園誘捕奴隸。19世紀末，該殖民地正式成為葡屬東非。

Not surprisingly, the lack of a centralised authority gave hope to the people of Mozambique that they might fight for their freedom. A major uprising broke out in 1917, the Barwe rebellion, and a German force invaded northern Mozambique in the same year. The Portuguese clung on, and Mozambique was made an overseas province of Portugal in 1951. A new independence movement began in 1962, and autonomy from colonial rule was finally achieved in 1975 after a long period of repressive government policies and guerrilla warfare. A civil war then ravaged the country until 1992.

? ? ? ? ? 毫不奇怪，在沒有中央集權的情況下，莫桑比克人民希望通過斗爭贏得自由。1917 年爆發(fā)了一場大起義，即 Barue 起義；同年，一支德國部隊入侵了莫桑比克北部。葡萄牙人保留了他們的殖民地，莫桑比克在1951年成為葡萄牙的一個海外省。一場新的運動始于 1962 年，經過長期的鎮(zhèn)壓政策和游擊戰(zhàn)，最終于 1975 年實現(xiàn)獨立。隨后，一場內戰(zhàn)蹂躪了這個國家，直到1992年。

參考書目：

Disney, A. R. A History of Portugal and the Portuguese Empire, Vol. 1. Cambridge University Press, 2009.

Disney, A. R. A History of Portugal and the Portuguese Empire, Vol. 2. Cambridge University Press, 2009.

Ogot, B. A. UNESCO General History of Africa, Vol. V, Abridged Edition. University of California Press, 1999.

Oliver, R. A. Cambridge Encyclopedia of Africa. Cambridge University Press, 1981.

Oliver, Roland. The Cambridge History of Africa, Vol. 3. Cambridge University Press, 2001.

Philip Curtin & Steven Feierman & Leonard Thompson & Jan Vansina. African History. Pearson, 1995.

Russell-Wood, A. J.R. The Portuguese Empire, 1415-1808. JHUP, 1998.

原文作者：Mark Cartwright

????????? 駐意大利的歷史作家。他的主要興趣包括陶瓷、建筑、世界神話和發(fā)現(xiàn)所有文明的共同思想。他擁有政治哲學碩士學位，是《世界歷史百科全書》的出版總監(jiān)。

參考書目：https://www.worldhistory.org/trans/es/2-1798/los-portugueses-en-africa-oriental/