07_休謨 - 徹底的懷疑主義 P7 - 00:24

David Hume 1711-1776

Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding (1748)

07_休謨 - 徹底的懷疑主義 P7 - 02:18

?Ideas are decayed impressions.

07_休謨 - 徹底的懷疑主義 P7 - 04:17

?Epistemic dualism:

Knowledge of relations of ideas: the relations one idea bears to another in my mind

Knowledge of matters of fact: made true by a statement's relation to impressions which confirms it

07_休謨 - 徹底的懷疑主義 P7 - 06:59

?The former is true in all circumstances, but only by definition, therefore they are trivial.

The latter gives real knowledge about the real world, never certain by necessity

07_休謨 - 徹底的懷疑主義 P7 - 08:42

?Constant conjunction

• Whenever A has occurred, B has occurred.

Necessary conjunction

• whenever A occurs, B must Occur:

1. Whenever A occurs, A has the power to make B occur

2. Whenever A occurs in the future, B will occur

07_休謨 - 徹底的懷疑主義 P7 - 13:00

Our claim that the future will resemble the past (or necessity) is whether true or false is unknowable, therefore we have no probable knowledge of the future, no reason whatsoever, no rational justification for such beliefs.

07_休謨 - 徹底的懷疑主義 P7 - 15:49

?Induction is in peril, no rational justification of induction.

Induction: the method by which we infer a probable Truth about a population of events from observing a selected sample of events.

07_休謨 - 徹底的懷疑主義 P7 - 21:19

?There is no underlying invisible substance of objects or minds, just a bundle and heap of ideas.

No rational reason to claim the lectern exists because I am experiencing it, which is the pure phenomenalism.

When there is no perceptible quality, there is nothing there.

07_休謨 - 徹底的懷疑主義 P7 - 24:34

?existence of God given by Aquinas and William Paley 1743-1805

07_休謨 - 徹底的懷疑主義 P7 - 28:34

?Custom or habit guides our beliefs, but there is no rational justification. We are not at liberty to cease to believe them.

"Nature is always too strong for principle."

08_康德的哥白尼式革命 P8 - 01:05

Immanuel Kant 1724-1804

08_康德的哥白尼式革命 P8 - 01:50

Critique of Pure Reason: the theory of knowledge

Critique of Practical Reason: ethics

Critique of Judgement: aesthetics (theory of art), teleology (purpose in nature)

08_康德的哥白尼式革命 P8 - 03:24

?Hume's category of relations of ideas are both a priori (independent of experience) and Analytic.

Hume's matters of fact are a posteriori (dependent on experience) and synthetic, or not true by definition

Kant shared the same ideas as Hume so far.

08_康德的哥白尼式革命 P8 - 06:13

?Kant Analytic-Synthetic Diagram

Can there be any synthetic a priori knowledge?

08_康德的哥白尼式革命 P8 - 09:23

?Kant's "Copernican Revolution": what if objects of experience conform to our cognition rather than the other way around? What if the mind's cognitive apparatus has a way or a means of handling experience, which intrinsically and explicitly impose an organization of structure on our experience? What if the mind organizes, predigests everything you and I call experience? What if our what we experience is already the joint product of sensations coming from outside and minds, transcendental activity of organizing that? What if cognition is active rather than merely passive?

08_康德的哥白尼式革命 P8 - 15:00

?transcendental: the pre-structuring of experience by the mind

We have a priori intuition.

It was the beginning of structuralism.

08_康德的哥白尼式革命 P8 - 20:04

?Kant's Cognitive Faculty: intuition, or sensibility, understanding, and reason

intuition's a priori forms: space, time

understanding's a priori categories: 12 categories; e.g., substances and their properties; necessary connection

synthetic a priori knowledge

• space, time

• necessary connection

• substance (subject and predicate)

08_康德的哥白尼式革命 P8 - 23:42

?The price: Kant must say all our knowledge is limited by the bounds of possible experience.

We cannot know the thing-in-itself.

08_康德的哥白尼式革命 P8 - 28:05

Moses Mendelssohn 1729-1786 called Kant "the Great Destroyer". He is a critical idealist and mostly a rationalist. But there was always a price mentioned earlier and later.

09_康德與理性的宗教 P9 - 05:47

"Dialectic of Pure Reason"

Vernunft: reason

Verstand: understanding

Reason is at a higher level than understanding. Reason tries to know everything. Reason posits certain ideas in this knowing process.

09_康德與理性的宗教 P9 - 07:18

?Reason's Ultimate Ideas:

• a ground of being

• a substantial self or soul

• free will

• the unity of the world of experience

09_康德與理性的宗教 P9 - 09:40

Reason cannot go beyond what can be known. But when it does, it generates a dialectic or contradiction.

09_康德與理性的宗教 P9 - 10:04

?Dialectic (for Plato): philosophical argument back and forth

Dialectic (for Kant): a logic of contradiction; a set of ideas which, because they try to know too much, generate a contradiction

09_康德與理性的宗教 P9 - 16:22

?If Newtonian theory is right, every event in the apparent world which we experience, knowledge from which he has saved from Hume would be casually deterministic.

09_康德與理性的宗教 P9 - 19:00

?Science can never either prove or disprove the human possession of free will. Science cannot know things-in-themselves. Therefore the free will, the belief in God, soul, heaven or hell is untouched by science.

09_康德與理性的宗教 P9 - 23:05

?Ultimate Ideas of Kant's Moral Philosophy:

• God

• immortality of the soul

• a future state

• free will

Kant is not claiming that these things are true, but he is saying that we are free to believe them and we are practically/morally required to believe in them. They are necessary presuppositions. Reason ?in our practical employment, has a bigger reach than it does in its theoretical employment since reason tells the will what to do and that it can do. Reason creates laws and rules which the will can obey.

09_康德與理性的宗教 P9 - 25:38

"I have to limit knowledge in order to make room for faith."

Deism

10_法國大革命與德國唯心主義 P10 - 02:30

Johann Gottlieb Fichte 1762-1814

Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph von Schelling 1775-1854

transitional figures of German Idealism, with Kant being its precursor and Hegel being its complete fulfillment.

10_法國大革命與德國唯心主義 P10 - 04:13

?Spinoza Renaissance

Spinoza came to be seen as ultimate embodiment of a purely rationalist and scientific metaphysics. But that resulted in determinism.

10_法國大革命與德國唯心主義 P10 - 04:33

?Friedrich Heinrich Jacobi 1743-1819

In a crisis, we either endorse Spinoza understood as a rational determinist atheist or opt for faith and forget about reason all together.

10_法國大革命與德國唯心主義 P10 - 05:20

?Pietist Tradition: combine Platonism mixed with the unorthodox Christianity of Meister Eckhart (1260-1328) and Jakob Bohme (1575-1624); pantheist, the primordial state of God is a dark, inchoate will towards self-revelation; God develops, needing the creation to understand itself in opposition to Creation; The doctrine of the trinity was interpreted as states of God's development.

10_法國大革命與德國唯心主義 P10 - 08:44

The modern concept of Nationalism, inspired by the French Revolution, the belief in the national spirit and national culture evolved among German intellectuals in response to their domination by the French.

10_法國大革命與德國唯心主義 P10 - 09:51

A comprehensive philosophy based in freedom could incorporate the new science and yet be compatible with the mystical, dynamic Christianity of the Pietist tradition and at the same time with political freedom.

10_法國大革命與德國唯心主義 P10 - 10:42

?Attempt at a Critique of All Revelation (1792)

10_法國大革命與德國唯心主義 P10 - 11:59

Fichte turned Kant's critical idealism into the new, dynamic absolute idealism of Schelling and Hegel.

10_法國大革命與德國唯心主義 P10 - 13:12

?The mind is active from Kant's perspective, therefore mind posits itself and for it to be finite and have context, self must posit its not-self, which is nature, without which it cannot be.

10_法國大革命與德國唯心主義 P10 - 13:51

Solipsism: everything in all reality is in my mind.

Fichte claimed he is not a solipsist, since the self's first act is to posit itself and its not-self, against which it knows who and what it is.

10_法國大革命與德國唯心主義 P10 - 14:25

"Im Anfang war die Tat": the beginning was the deed. Action comes first, now knowledge.

Fichte postulated that we have direct, non empirical intuition of the activity of our self, but as limited, as constrained by a world. It is both an active thinking and willing subject, making Berkeley's idea dynamic.

10_法國大革命與德國唯心主義 P10 - 15:51

We must be posited by the act of self-positing of the divine itself. Creation is God positing itself as a series of limited selves, each of which is constrained by not-self, or nature.

10_法國大革命與德國唯心主義 P10 - 17:00

?Speculative Philosophy bridges the two by positing as its own positing, recognizes nature as sourced by the self, and recognizes the opposite as an expression of spirit. The self posits itself and its non-self, or nature, and these two interacts.

10_法國大革命與德國唯心主義 P10 - 18:30

?Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph von Schelling 1775-1854

10_法國大革命與德國唯心主義 P10 - 19:46

?Schelling calls the whole the absolute Spirit and overtime it divides itself into Nature and mind in order to know itself. Even God does not understand himself until he goes through the process of positing, developing, splitting into self and the other, and then recognizing that the other is God's self.

10_法國大革命與德國唯心主義 P10 - 21:16

?Unlike Hegel and Fichte, but like Spinoza, Schelling ?regarded Nature as the creative source of the mind, and identified it with the Absolute.

10_法國大革命與德國唯心主義 P10 - 23:04

?Every being is distinct from its ground or reason or cause. God's essence or reality is distinct from God's basis, even thought the former contains the latter. God must have a primitive, fundamental kind of base out of which the essence and existence of God comes.

10_法國大革命與德國唯心主義 P10 - 24:57

?Ungrund (Unground): A chaos

God most fundamentally or primitively is the Ungrund, and there is no difference between essence and ground. At some point, this indifference was shattered by God's longing to give birth to himself. There is something about God that wants to create. It causes the separation of God as Ungrund into essence and ground. Nature is the actualization of the ground; and spirit or mind is the actualization of the essence. Human beings are the actualization of both.

10_法國大革命與德國唯心主義 P10 - 26:27

Evil occurs when the ground (natural part, less free part, dark part )of something escapes the control of essence or spirit and controls it, which can only happen to humans. Love and forgiveness is the reintegration of essence and ground.

10_法國大革命與德國唯心主義 P10 - 27:57

?Fichte and Schelling are creating a new kind of philosophy to explain everything. The whole picture is evolutionary, active and dynamic, including God.

11_黑格爾 - 最后一個偉大的哲學(xué)體系 P11 - 00:23

?Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel 1770-1831, the last systematic philosopher

11_黑格爾 - 最后一個偉大的哲學(xué)體系 P11 - 01:45

?Phenomenology of Spirit 1807

11_黑格爾 - 最后一個偉大的哲學(xué)體系 P11 - 03:02

?There is a communitarian feeling to German philosophy at this point. A Germanic alternative to the Western versions of the Enlightenment would have to be compatible with the German Pietist tradition of Christianity as well as with the historical and cultural embeddedness of the rational mind.

11_黑格爾 - 最后一個偉大的哲學(xué)體系 P11 - 04:50

Geist: spirit or mind

We are going to Analyze the shapes or forms of Geist as they evolve in human history from the most narrow and limited toward the perspective of the Whole, which means the perspective of God himself.

11_黑格爾 - 最后一個偉大的哲學(xué)體系 P11 - 07:15

?Dialectic (for Hegel): the manner of transition or development

And dialectic for Kant is used in a pejorative way when reason tries to know more than it can know and it runs into self-contradictions.

11_黑格爾 - 最后一個偉大的哲學(xué)體系 P11 - 08:10

the theory of thesis, antithesis, synthesis: God in his full, total self-realization does not undergo this process. But everything shop to that must go through this process of opposition, which means limitation, having a negation and then incorporation.

11_黑格爾 - 最后一個偉大的哲學(xué)體系 P11 - 10:47

?Begriff: notion, idea of a thing in its Truth: the concept of a thing as dynamically part of the evolution of spirit seen properly by speculative philosophy

11_黑格爾 - 最后一個偉大的哲學(xué)體系 P11 - 11:32

?Verstand: to understand things, which is how science understands things according to Hegel. However, everything is in the process of growth and development towards greater integration. The notion of anything is not just any static idea, but an idea from the point of view of its eventual evolution or its eventual incorporation into the Whole.

Truth is the Whole, the notion is dictated by its role and place in the Whole.

11_黑格爾 - 最后一個偉大的哲學(xué)體系 P11 - 12:32

?Geist: spirit

Being in and for itself in Hegel.

11_黑格爾 - 最后一個偉大的哲學(xué)體系 P11 - 12:51

?Vernunft: reason as opposed to understanding or reflection. Reason discovers the inner spiritual movement of each thing. Reason is not understanding (natural science)

11_黑格爾 - 最后一個偉大的哲學(xué)體系 P11 - 14:21

Correspondence theory of Truth: ideas or statements are true when they correspond to the state they are describing.

11_黑格爾 - 最后一個偉大的哲學(xué)體系 P11 - 14:59

Truth as coherence: fitting together an idea or reality into the whole

11_黑格爾 - 最后一個偉大的哲學(xué)體系 P11 - 16:09

Phenomenology, sense certainty: here, now does not specifically refer to concrete things, but rather abstract.

11_黑格爾 - 最后一個偉大的哲學(xué)體系 P11 - 18:11

?Force.

The object cannot be understood without the category of force employed by the Understanding.

11_黑格爾 - 最后一個偉大的哲學(xué)體系 P11 - 19:12

anti-Cartesian social claim, self-consciousness can only be achieved in relation to another self-consciousness, in being acknowledged by another.

11_黑格爾 - 最后一個偉大的哲學(xué)體系 P11 - 19:45

?Lord and Bondsman.

Slaves and owners both fail to recognize themselves.

In the struggle, the bondsman began to recognize free will. They win by the mere act of struggle. When they fight, they recognize their free will by his willingness to brave death.

The lord comes to recognize that he is not mere and omnipotent, negative power but must deal with the slave on equal footing as another independent self.

11_黑格爾 - 最后一個偉大的哲學(xué)體系 P11 - 22:24

?Both come to realize their combined freedom in dependence and turn their mutual unhappy consciousness to worship the external cross as the unification they lack. Therefore, the ancient world abandoned the slavery and became Christian.

11_黑格爾 - 最后一個偉大的哲學(xué)體系 P11 - 24:00

?Spirit proper, Hegel cuts western societies into certain eras wherein through its ethical and cultural objectification, Reason began to find mastery of Nature.

?11_黑格爾 - 最后一個偉大的哲學(xué)體系 P11 - 25:45

?They think of freedom in a purely abstract freedom and terror way. Therefore the result of French Revolution being, the terror.

11_黑格爾 - 最后一個偉大的哲學(xué)體系 P11 - 26:27

?Moralit?t (moral duties; could be identified with Kant's famous notion of moral duty) and Sittlichkeit (the notion of a moral community, a custom)

The integration of these tow required a rational state, a unified and constitutional German state.

11_黑格爾 - 最后一個偉大的哲學(xué)體系 P11 - 30:03

rational mysticism

11_黑格爾 - 最后一個偉大的哲學(xué)體系 P11 - 30:41

?Science of Logic

Encyclopedia; Logic; Nature; Spirit; Philosophy of Right

?12_黑格爾的對工業(yè)革命時代哲學(xué)... P12 - 04:17

?"The real is the rational."

There is a good reason for whatever there is.

12_黑格爾的對工業(yè)革命時代哲學(xué)... P12 - 05:07

?Auguste Comte 1798-1857

positivism, the society evolving from religion to metaphysics, and finally to science. Science is the Truth.

?12_黑格爾的對工業(yè)革命時代哲學(xué)... P12 - 05:42

?Herber Spencer 1820-1903

"survival of the fittest" and applied evolution to human society. The English Century.

12_黑格爾的對工業(yè)革命時代哲學(xué)... P12 - 06:34

?The new and radical philosophy of ethics and politics developed by Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832) and James Mill (1773-1836) is utilitarianism.

Mill claimed that laws should be argued on the basis of history (past cases) rather than a priori principle.

Bentham argued that laws and social policies should be determined scientifically as to their concrete consequences, as measured by happiness (the greatest good for the greatest number)and pleasure rather than historical precedent and tradition, which allows a scientific approach to ethics. Tradition and custom had no great role in his thought.

12_黑格爾的對工業(yè)革命時代哲學(xué)... P12 - 08:21

?John Stuart Mill 1806-1873, James Mill's son

He developed a very important logic and empiricist and inductivist accounts of science, which set the standard for philosophy of science through the second half of 19th century.

12_黑格爾的對工業(yè)革命時代哲學(xué)... P12 - 09:14

?On Liberty, supporter of women's rights

Harriet Taylor 1807-1858

12_黑格爾的對工業(yè)革命時代哲學(xué)... P12 - 10:29

?He included qualitative difference among pleasures and refused to make ethics a scientific or mathematical as Bentham hoped.

12_黑格爾的對工業(yè)革命時代哲學(xué)... P12 - 11:12

?He also gave us the most famous formulation of liberalism, the harm principle.

12_黑格爾的對工業(yè)革命時代哲學(xué)... P12 - 12:17

?A romantic notion: social diversity of opinion is a good, passed from Mill to Dewey and then Jurgen Habermas, many defenders of liberal democracy.

Progress or improvement comes from conflict, and conflict requires diversity.

12_黑格爾的對工業(yè)革命時代哲學(xué)... P12 - 15:47

?Mill constructed an empiricist, psychological logic, which derived logical rules form psychology and experience, hence from nature, not a priori.

12_黑格爾的對工業(yè)革命時代哲學(xué)... P12 - 16:57

?James Clerk Maxwell 1831-1879

12_黑格爾的對工業(yè)革命時代哲學(xué)... P12 - 17:18

Charles Darwin 1809-1882

The origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection (1859)

12_黑格爾的對工業(yè)革命時代哲學(xué)... P12 - 18:45

?natural selection: the environment naturally selects some biological forms for death before they can either produce or raise offspring to self-sustaining maturity; hence, their traits are represented in the next generation.

12_黑格爾的對工業(yè)革命時代哲學(xué)... P12 - 20:30

?The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex (1871): humans also evolved from primates.

12_黑格爾的對工業(yè)革命時代哲學(xué)... P12 - 23:54

?Henri Bergson 1859-1941

to reconcile the emergence of novel properties with evolution.

Mathematical Analysis of time was mistaken. Mathematical Analysis of time into duration-less moments was implausible. Real time is duration.

12_黑格爾的對工業(yè)革命時代哲學(xué)... P12 - 24:58

Living things are driven by special force, elan vitale, which is irreducible to physics or chemistry.