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【簡譯】文藝復(fù)興時(shí)期藝術(shù)家的工作室生活

2022-08-10 15:31 作者:神尾智代 0人讀過 | 我要投稿

The majority of great Renaissance works of art were produced in large and busy workshops run by a successful master artist and his team of assistants and apprentices. Here, too, more mundane art was produced in larger quantities to meet the demand from clients with a more modest budget than possessed by rulers and popes. Workshops were also training grounds for young artists who learnt their craft over several years, beginning with copying sketches and perhaps ending with producing works in their own name. Although workshops often had a well-defined house 'style', they were also places where ideas were experimented with and where new trends could be studied, discussed, and employed in works of art that ranged from massive frescoes to votive figurines.

? ? ? ? ? 大多數(shù)偉大的文藝復(fù)興時(shí)期的藝術(shù)作品都是在大型的、繁忙的作坊里產(chǎn)生的，這些作坊幾乎都是由一位成功的藝術(shù)大師和他的助手及學(xué)徒團(tuán)隊(duì)管理。在這里，普通藝術(shù)作品也被大量生產(chǎn)，以滿足不同客戶的需求，他們的預(yù)算比統(tǒng)治者和教皇較少。工作室也是年輕藝術(shù)家的培訓(xùn)場所，他們在幾年內(nèi)學(xué)習(xí)前輩的手藝，從復(fù)制草圖開始，也許最后以自己的名義制作作品。雖然工作室通常有明確的內(nèi)部 "風(fēng)格"，但它們也是試驗(yàn)各種想法的地方；在這里，藝術(shù)家們可以研究、討論并在藝術(shù)作品中采用新穎的手法，其范圍從大型壁畫到選民小雕像。

巴喬·班迪內(nèi)利創(chuàng)作的《佛羅倫薩學(xué)院》（The Florentine Academy）。

工作室的建立

The people who produce art and decorative objects, those we today call 'artists', were, during the Renaissance, called 'craftsmen' and so belonged to the same broad category as cobblers, bakers, carpenters, and blacksmiths. Like these artisans, artists had workshops with the specialised equipment, materials, and space they needed for their work. As the Renaissance progressed, it is true that artists began to be distinguished from other craftworkers as there was an obvious intellectual element to their work - they studied the past and considered such theories as mathematical perspective, for example. Hitherto, the title of 'artist' had only been given to someone who had studied the seven liberal arts (rhetoric, grammar, dialectic, geometry, arithmetic, music, and astronomy). This development and elevation of the artist from other craftworkers also indicated that art had become an essential and important element in how a city or state viewed itself.

? ? ? ? ? 生產(chǎn)藝術(shù)和裝飾品的人，也就是我們今天所說的"藝術(shù)家"，在文藝復(fù)興時(shí)期被稱為"工匠"，因此與鞋匠、面包師、木匠和鐵匠屬于同一大類。和這些職業(yè)一樣，藝術(shù)家們也有自己的工作室，擁有他們工作所需的專業(yè)設(shè)備、材料和空間。隨著文藝復(fù)興的發(fā)展，藝術(shù)家確實(shí)開始與其他手工業(yè)者區(qū)分開來，因?yàn)樗麄兊墓ぷ饔忻黠@的智力因素——例如，他們研究過去，考慮數(shù)學(xué)透視等理論。到目前為止，"藝術(shù)家 "的頭銜只賦予那些學(xué)習(xí)過七種文科（修辭學(xué)、語法、辯證法、幾何學(xué)、算術(shù)、音樂和天文學(xué)）的人。藝術(shù)家從其他手工業(yè)者中發(fā)展和提升，也表明藝術(shù)已經(jīng)成為一個(gè)城市或國家如何看待自己的基本和重要因素。

During the Renaissance many civic projects, but also some private ones like fresco cycles, could take many years to complete. Some projects needed large quantities of material and a team of artists, usually working under the supervision of the chief artist or his foreman, to complete them in good time. Consequently, when master artists were commissioned for specific projects, they were often given a dedicated space to create a workshop if they did not have one already or if it was more convenient to work on site. Donatello (c. 1386-1466 CE), for example, was commissioned to create sculptures for the exterior of Florence's cathedral and he was given space for his workshop in one of the Duomo's chapels. Running a workshop required all kinds of skills besides artistic ones. A master had to be discerning with contracts, manage and train staff, assess the quality of raw materials, budget his finances, invest any profits and, of course, never stop producing great art.

? ? ? ? ? 文藝復(fù)興時(shí)期，許多市政工程，但也有一些私人工程，如壁畫，可能需要很多年才能完成。有些項(xiàng)目需要大量的材料和一個(gè)完整的藝術(shù)家團(tuán)隊(duì)，通常在首席藝術(shù)家或其工頭的監(jiān)督下工作，以便及時(shí)完成這些項(xiàng)目。因此，當(dāng)大師級的藝術(shù)家被委托進(jìn)行特定的項(xiàng)目時(shí)，如果他們還沒有工作室，或者在現(xiàn)場工作更方便的話，他們通常會(huì)得到一個(gè)專門的空間來創(chuàng)建一個(gè)工作室。例如，多納太羅（約公元1386-1466年）被委托為佛羅倫薩大教堂的外墻創(chuàng)作雕塑，他的工作室被安排在大教堂的一個(gè)小禮拜堂里。除了藝術(shù)方面的技能，經(jīng)營工作室還需要各種技能。大師必須對合同有清醒的認(rèn)識(shí)，還要學(xué)會(huì)管理和培訓(xùn)員工，評估原材料的質(zhì)量，預(yù)算財(cái)務(wù)，投資任何利潤。當(dāng)然，永遠(yuǎn)不要停止生產(chǎn)偉大的藝術(shù)品。

Some very successful artists even had workshops running in two or more cities at the same time. Just like today, a career in the arts could be a precarious one and some artists reduced the financial burden and risks by sharing a workshop. Donatello and Michelozzo di Bartolomeo (1396-1472 CE), for example, shared workshops in Pisa and Florence, which allowed them to save funds by sharing two boats and a mule for the transportation of marble needed for their work.

? ? ? ? ? 一些非常成功的藝術(shù)家甚至在兩個(gè)或更多的城市同時(shí)開辦工作室。就像今天一樣，藝術(shù)家的藝術(shù)生涯可能是不穩(wěn)定的，所以一些藝術(shù)家通過分享工作室來減少經(jīng)濟(jì)負(fù)擔(dān)和風(fēng)險(xiǎn)。例如，多納太羅和米切洛佐·迪·巴托洛梅奧（公元1396-1472年）在比薩和佛羅倫薩共享工作室，這使得他們可以通過共享兩艘船和一頭騾子來運(yùn)輸工作所需的大理石，以此節(jié)省資金。

客? ? ?戶

During the Renaissance, generally speaking, art was not produced first and then sold later as it often is today, rather, artists were commissioned to produce specific pieces. Works of art were expensive and so the customers of a workshop were typically rulers, aristocrats (men and women), bankers, successful merchants, notaries, higher members of the clergy, religious orders and civic authorities and organisations like guilds. More humble clients might commission works for very special occasions such as a marriage or moving into a new home. Another popular demand for artworks was ex-votos, that is objects like plaques and small reliefs which believers wanted to leave in their local church as a thanks for propitious events which had happened in their daily lives. These ex-votos were part of the minority of works that a workshop produced without first having identified a specific buyer and so they would have likely been available 'over the counter' for a client to choose from.

? ? ? ? ? 在文藝復(fù)興時(shí)期，一般來說，藝術(shù)品不是像今天這樣先生產(chǎn)后銷售，而是客戶委托藝術(shù)家制作特定的作品。藝術(shù)品價(jià)格昂貴，因此工作室的客戶通常是統(tǒng)治者、貴族（男性和女性）、銀行家、成功的商人、公證人、高級神職人員、宗教團(tuán)體和公民當(dāng)局以及行會(huì)等組織。更謙遜的客戶可能會(huì)在非常特殊的場合，如結(jié)婚或搬入新家時(shí)委托制作。對藝術(shù)品的另一個(gè)流行需求是像牌匾和小浮雕這樣的物品，信徒們想把它們留在當(dāng)?shù)氐慕烫美?，作為對他們?nèi)粘Ｉ钪邪l(fā)生的吉祥事件的感謝。這些紀(jì)念品是工作室在沒有確定具體買家的情況下生產(chǎn)的少數(shù)作品的一部分，因此它們很可能是 "柜臺(tái)"上的商品，供客戶選擇。

Whoever the client, though, they were generally picky, and the artist's job was to produce exactly what they wanted. This was not mere whim on the part of the patrons as in that period art was not simply meant to be aesthetically pleasing. Rather, works of art had specific functions such as inspiring devotion, telling a Biblical story, or representing the history and abilities of a certain city or ruling family. For this reason, the artist had to follow certain conventions so that viewers could easily recognise religious, mythological, and historical figures.

? ? ? ? ? 不過，無論客戶是誰，他們一般都很挑剔，而藝術(shù)家的工作就是制作出他們想要的東西。這不僅僅是贊助人的心血來潮，因?yàn)樵谀莻€(gè)時(shí)期，藝術(shù)并不只是為了讓人感到愉悅。相反，藝術(shù)作品有特定的功能，如激勵(lì)人們的奉獻(xiàn)精神，講述圣經(jīng)故事，或代表某個(gè)城市或統(tǒng)治家族的歷史和能力。出于這個(gè)原因，藝術(shù)家必須遵循某些慣例，以便觀眾能夠輕松識(shí)別宗教、神話和歷史人物。

Patrons and customers were, then, often not shy to stipulate exactly what they wanted to see in the finished work. Artists who diverged from these stipulations risked not having their work accepted or replaced (in the case of a fresco, for example). Haggling over the design and artist's fees set many a project back, whether it be a tomb for a Pope or a statue of a military leader. Contracts often stipulated a precise completion date, and this could be another source of friction between patron and artist. The contract might include a clause on just how much precious material - anything from gold to expensive colours - was used in the commission. A finished work might have to pass an assessment by a body of independent artists in the case of public works to ensure high quality. However, some artists were famous enough to push for complete control of a given project, even if there was sometimes an outcry from traditionalists when the work was finally revealed to the public. Michelangelo's Sistine Chapel frescoes are a good example of this when some clergy objected to the amount of nudity in his work. The fact that the destruction of the frescoes was seriously contemplated indicates just how dangerous it was for an artist to vary from convention, even one as renowned as Michelangelo.

? ? ? ? ? 因此，贊助人和顧客往往毫不吝嗇地給他們預(yù)定的作品提出更多的要求。偏離這些要求的藝術(shù)家有可能無法接受他們的作品或被替換（例如壁畫）。在設(shè)計(jì)和藝術(shù)家費(fèi)用上的討價(jià)還價(jià)會(huì)使許多項(xiàng)目受到影響，無論是教皇的墳?zāi)惯€是軍事領(lǐng)導(dǎo)人的雕像。合同通常規(guī)定一個(gè)精確的完成日期，這可能是贊助人和藝術(shù)家之間摩擦的另一個(gè)來源。合同中可能包括一個(gè)條款，說明委托中使用了多少珍貴的材料——從黃金到昂貴的顏色。如果是公共工程，完成的作品可能必須通過獨(dú)立藝術(shù)家機(jī)構(gòu)的評估，以確保高質(zhì)量。然而，一些藝術(shù)家的名氣大到足以推動(dòng)對某一項(xiàng)目的完全控制，即使有時(shí)當(dāng)作品最終向公眾展示時(shí)，也會(huì)遭到傳統(tǒng)主義者的強(qiáng)烈抗議。米開朗基羅的西斯廷教堂壁畫就是一個(gè)很好的例子，當(dāng)時(shí)一些神職人員反對他作品中的裸體數(shù)量。認(rèn)真考慮銷毀壁畫的事實(shí)表明，對于一個(gè)藝術(shù)家來說，即使是像米開朗基羅這樣著名的藝術(shù)家，改變傳統(tǒng)也是很危險(xiǎn)的。

There was a great rivalry between such Italian cities as Florence, Venice, Mantua, and Siena and so it was not uncommon for rulers and civic authorities to try and poach an artist away from one city and establish a new workshop elsewhere. Such authorities hoped the new art produced would enhance the prestige of their city and themselves. In addition, some artists were in such demand that they accepted more commissions than they could handle and so works were left unfinished or had to be completed by an assistant. Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519 CE) was notorious for not finishing off projects, and art patrons even wrote to each other warning of this fault.

? ? ? ? ? 佛羅倫薩、威尼斯、曼圖亞和錫耶納等意大利城市之間存在著巨大的競爭，因此統(tǒng)治者和市政當(dāng)局試圖將藝術(shù)家從一個(gè)城市挖走并在其他地方建立新的工作室的情況并不少見。這些當(dāng)局希望產(chǎn)生的新藝術(shù)能提高他們城市和他們自己的聲望。此外，有些藝術(shù)家的客戶需求量太大，以至于他們接受的委托超過了他們能夠處理的范圍，因此作品有時(shí)可能會(huì)擱置，或者不得不由助手來完成。達(dá)芬奇（公元1452-1519年）因沒有完成項(xiàng)目而臭名昭著，藝術(shù)贊助人甚至相互寫信警告這種錯(cuò)誤。

學(xué)? ? ?徒

Workshops were not just places where art was produced but were training schools for the next generation of artists. Apprentices typically, but not always, followed their fathers into the artistic profession, as was common in other crafts. Other boys who showed artistic talent were sent to the workshop of a famous artist. Lorenzo Ghiberti (1378-1455 CE), the famed sculptor who worked for decades on the doors of the Baptistery of Florence, had a large workshop in that city. Many artists studied under Ghiberti or worked as his assistant, notably the sculptor Donatello and the painter Paolo Uccello (1397-1475 CE). In another example, the Florentine artist Andrea del Verrocchio (c. 1435-1488 CE) trained Pietro Perugino (c.?1450-1523 CE), Sandro Botticelli (1445-1510 CE) and Leonardo da Vinci. Perugino would himself go on to train Raphael (1483-1520 CE) in his workshop in Perugia. The Renaissance art world was really quite a small one and famed artists were certainly aware of what their rivals were producing, either in the next room of the workshop or in another city.

? ? ? ? ? 工作室不僅是生產(chǎn)藝術(shù)品的地方，也是下一代藝術(shù)家的培訓(xùn)學(xué)校。學(xué)徒通常（但并不總是）跟隨他們的父親進(jìn)入藝術(shù)行業(yè)，這在其他行業(yè)是很常見的。其他表現(xiàn)出藝術(shù)天賦的男孩則被送到著名藝術(shù)家的工作室。洛倫佐·吉貝爾蒂（公元1378-1455年）是著名的雕塑家，他為佛羅倫薩洗禮堂的大門裝飾工作了幾十年，他在該城市有一個(gè)大型工作室。許多藝術(shù)家都曾在吉貝爾蒂手下學(xué)習(xí)或擔(dān)任他的助手，特別是雕塑家多納太羅和畫家保羅·烏切洛（公元1397-1475年）。另一個(gè)例子是，佛羅倫薩藝術(shù)家安德烈·德爾·委羅基奧（約1435-1488 CE）培養(yǎng)了彼得羅·佩魯吉諾（約1450-1523 CE）、山德羅·波提且利（1445-1510 CE）和李?yuàn)W納多·迪·塞爾·皮耶羅·達(dá)文西。佩魯吉諾本人也在他位于佩魯賈的工作室里培養(yǎng)了拉斐爾（公元1483-1520年）。文藝復(fù)興時(shí)期的藝術(shù)世界其實(shí)很小，著名的藝術(shù)家們當(dāng)然知道他們的對手在生產(chǎn)什么，要么在工作室的隔壁房間，要么在另一個(gè)城市。

Apprentices were almost all boys (occasionally an artist apprenticed his own daughter), and they might be taken on as young as aged eleven or in their early teens. The training typically lasted from three to five years but could be less or more, depending on the ability and progress of the apprentice. The trainee was given food, lodging, and clothing, and sometimes a small wage. They would begin by doing the simple labour tasks necessary for the daily running of the workshop, then progress to making brushes from boar's hair, preparing glues and grinding pigments in marble basins. Next came such chores as mixing gesso, creating plaster, and preparing canvases.

? ? ? ? ? 學(xué)徒幾乎都是男孩（偶爾有藝術(shù)家讓自己的女兒當(dāng)學(xué)徒），他們可能在11歲或10歲出頭時(shí)就被招收。培訓(xùn)通常持續(xù)三到五年，但也可能更短或更長，這取決于學(xué)徒的能力和進(jìn)步。受訓(xùn)者會(huì)得到衣食住的保障，有時(shí)還有少量工資。他們首先從事工作室日常運(yùn)作所需的簡單勞動(dòng)，然后發(fā)展到用野豬毛制作畫筆，準(zhǔn)備膠水和在大理石盆中研磨顏料。接下來是攪拌石膏、制作石膏和準(zhǔn)備畫布等雜務(wù)。

The actual art skills typically began with drawing (using charcoal or ink), which was given great emphasis in the Renaissance period. Trainees endlessly copied drawings done by others and then progressed to creating new ones from three-dimensional casts. The final stage was to draw from live models, often fellow apprentices dressed as shepherds and angels or in the nude or wearing clothing that permitted an artist to perfect their representation of folded drapery. Another source of reality was drawing dead bodies and dissected limbs, which were acquired from local doctors and considered a useful way for painters and sculptors to better understand human musculature so that they could then better represent it accurately in art. Trips out and about in the city were organised to draw buildings, trees, and birds. As Leonardo da Vinci once recommended, any self-respecting artist should always carry a sketchbook with him to be ready to capture a new and interesting subject.

? ? ? ? ? 藝術(shù)技能的訓(xùn)練通常從繪畫開始（使用木炭或墨水），這在文藝復(fù)興時(shí)期被高度重視。學(xué)員們無休止地臨摹別人畫的畫，然后發(fā)展到根據(jù)三維模型創(chuàng)作新的畫。最后一個(gè)階段是根據(jù)活體模特兒作畫，這些模特兒往往是裝扮成牧羊人和天使的學(xué)徒，或者是裸體，或者是穿著允許藝術(shù)家完美表現(xiàn)折疊窗簾的服裝?，F(xiàn)實(shí)的另一個(gè)來源是繪制尸體和解剖的肢體，這是從當(dāng)?shù)蒯t(yī)生那里獲得的，這被認(rèn)為是畫家和雕塑家更好地了解人類肌肉組織的一個(gè)有用方法，這樣他們就可以更好地在藝術(shù)中準(zhǔn)確地表現(xiàn)它。他們會(huì)組織在城市中的旅行，以繪制建筑物、樹木和鳥類。正如達(dá)芬奇曾經(jīng)建議的那樣，任何有自尊心的藝術(shù)家都應(yīng)該隨身攜帶一本素描本，以便隨時(shí)準(zhǔn)備捕捉新的有趣的主題。

During the Renaissance, it was common for trainees to learn skills across different media such as fresco, panel painting using tempera or oil paints, large-scale sculpture in stone and metal, engraving, mosaic work, and the secrets of the goldsmith. Young artists learnt such practical skills as how to cast sculpture in metals like bronze and how to put these pieces together. They learnt the techniques of 'chasing' (finishing and polishing) and gilding the finished works. They learnt to mix colours and studied such techniques as chiaroscuro (the contrasting use of light and shade), sfumato (the transition of lighter into darker colours) and how to achieve a sense of perspective in a scene. Finally, and above all, an apprentice would learn how to reproduce the distinctive artistic methods of the workshop's master, the house 'style'.

? ? ? ? ? 在文藝復(fù)興時(shí)期，受訓(xùn)者學(xué)習(xí)不同媒介的技能是很常見的，如壁畫、使用蛋彩或油畫顏料的板畫、石頭和金屬的大型雕塑、雕刻、馬賽克作品，以及金匠的技術(shù)活。年輕的藝術(shù)家們學(xué)習(xí)了諸如如何用青銅等金屬鑄造雕塑以及如何將這些作品組裝起來等實(shí)用技能。他們學(xué)習(xí)了 " chasing "（整理和拋光）和為成品鍍金的技術(shù)。他們學(xué)會(huì)了調(diào)色，并學(xué)習(xí)了諸如明暗對照法（明暗對比的使用）、暈涂法（淺色向深色的過渡）以及如何在場景中實(shí)現(xiàn)透視感等技巧。最重要的是，學(xué)徒將學(xué)習(xí)如何復(fù)制工作室主人的獨(dú)特藝術(shù)方法，即工作室的 "風(fēng)格"。

助? ? ?手

An apprentice, having learned all of the above skills, would then graduate to becoming an assistant. Now he received a full salary and could work on behalf of the workshop's chief artist who then might sign his own name to the finished work of art (although some contracts stipulated important elements of a piece had to be created by the master himself). A gifted assistant would be trusted to fill in less important parts of a work the master was creating, for example, the hands of a figure, a background scene or applying areas of gold leaf. One can imagine that less-gifted assistants were entrusted with even more minor tasks like adding inscriptions and labels to works of art, a practice quite common in the Renaissance period.

? ? ? ? ? 學(xué)徒在學(xué)會(huì)了上述所有技能后，就會(huì)畢業(yè)成為助理?，F(xiàn)在他可以領(lǐng)取全額工資，可以代表工作室的首席藝術(shù)家工作，然后他可以在完成的藝術(shù)作品上簽上自己的名字（盡管有些合同規(guī)定作品的重要元素必須由大師親自創(chuàng)作）。一個(gè)有天賦的助手會(huì)被充分信任，來填補(bǔ)大師正在創(chuàng)作的作品中不太重要的部分，例如，人物的手、背景場景或應(yīng)用金箔的區(qū)域。我們可以想象，天賦較低的助手被委托完成更多的小任務(wù)，如為藝術(shù)品添加銘文和標(biāo)簽，這種做法在文藝復(fù)興時(shí)期非常普遍。

An assistant might also join a guild of their city and so they could then produce works in their own right, even if they might still remain in the workshop rather than set up shop themselves, as was the case with Leonardo da Vinci early in his career. If they did want to establish their own workshop, then they first had to submit a 'masterpiece' for the approval of their local guild, which would then issue them with the right to do so (on payment of a fee). Another group within the workshop team, one rarely mentioned but nevertheless occasionally documented as existing, were slaves. Unlike an apprentice or assistant, they received no wage but a slave could, besides doing such obvious tasks as fetching, carrying, and cleaning, be trained in specific arts and produce works of their own.

? ? ? ? ? 助手也可以加入他們所在城市的公會(huì)，這樣他們就可以以自己的名義制作作品，即使他們可能仍然留在作坊里而不是自己開店，就像達(dá)芬奇職業(yè)生涯早期的情況那樣。如果他們確實(shí)想建立自己的作坊，那么他們首先必須提交一份 "杰作"供當(dāng)?shù)毓珪?huì)批準(zhǔn)，然后公會(huì)會(huì)向他們頒發(fā)權(quán)利證明（支付一定的費(fèi)用）。工作室團(tuán)隊(duì)中的另一個(gè)群體是奴隸，這個(gè)群體很少被提及，但偶爾也有文獻(xiàn)記載。與學(xué)徒或助手不同的是，他們沒有工資，但奴隸除了做取貨、搬運(yùn)和清潔等工作外，還可以接受特定藝術(shù)方面的培訓(xùn)，并制作自己的作品。

Besides the production of physical objects, ideas were studied and discussed in the workshop between the master and his assistants. Many noted artists built up their own collections of antiquities or portfolios of drawings of ancient art so that the study of these might help the workshop reproduce correctly anatomical details, proportion or classical motifs. There were, too, written texts discussing art and techniques. Leon Battista Alberti (1404-1472 CE) wrote one such influential treatise, On Painting in 1435 CE. The master might also have contacts with other artists in other cities or abroad, another route for ideas and trends to filter down to the artists of tomorrow. As mentioned, these theoretical studies were an essential element in the progression of artists towards a more intellectual and elevated status in Renaissance society.

? ? ? ? ? 除了制作實(shí)物，大師和他的助手們還在車間里研究和討論各種想法。許多著名的藝術(shù)家建立了自己的古物收藏或古代藝術(shù)圖畫組合，以便對這些東西的研究可以幫助工作室正確地再現(xiàn)解剖細(xì)節(jié)、比例或古典圖案。此外，還有討論藝術(shù)和技術(shù)的書面文本。萊昂·巴蒂斯塔·阿爾貝蒂（公元1404-1472年）在公元1435年寫了一篇有影響力的論文——《論繪畫》。大師們還可能與其他城市或國外的其他藝術(shù)家有聯(lián)系，這是思想和趨勢向未來的藝術(shù)家滲透的另一條途徑。如前所述，這些理論研究是藝術(shù)家在文藝復(fù)興社會(huì)中邁向更高的知識(shí)和地位的一個(gè)重要因素。

大規(guī)?模生產(chǎn)?與?偽造?品

Despite all this attention to artistic learning and theory, many workshops became factories of art and most of their output was not the masterpieces we see today in museums worldwide but more mundane pieces meant as decoration in minor churches and less palatial homes. Perugino's workshop, for example, was noted for churning out endless altarpieces whose figures combined poses, heads, and limbs taken from a standard catalogue of drawings. These works were handmade and individualised by uniquely combining otherwise standard elements but they were the mass-produced art of the day and criticised as such by lovers of finer art. It was on these more humble works that most apprentices would have learnt their trade.

? ? ? ? ? 盡管對藝術(shù)學(xué)習(xí)和理論是如此的重視，許多作坊還成為了藝術(shù)工廠，他們的大部分作品不是我們今天在世界各地的博物館中看到的杰作，而是更平凡的作品，作為小教堂和不太富裕的家庭的裝飾。例如，佩魯吉諾的作坊因不斷地制造祭壇作品而聞名，其人物的姿勢、頭部和四肢都來自標(biāo)準(zhǔn)的圖畫目錄。這些作品是手工制作的，并通過獨(dú)特地結(jié)合其他標(biāo)準(zhǔn)元素來實(shí)現(xiàn)個(gè)性化，但它們是當(dāng)時(shí)大規(guī)模生產(chǎn)的藝術(shù)，被更精細(xì)的藝術(shù)愛好者經(jīng)查拿出來批評。大多數(shù)學(xué)徒都是在這些比較簡陋的作品上學(xué)習(xí)技藝的。

Another method to increase revenue and spread the reputation of a workshop was to produce copper-plate prints. These became increasingly popular from the 1470s CE onwards and not only allowed those of more modest means to own a piece of art but they also helped spread artistic ideas across Europe. Artists such as Albrecht Dürer (1471-1528 CE), amongst many others, compiled portfolios of prints and sketches of interesting works of art by other artists. The level of craftsmanship employed to produce engravings could be very high, and fine prints even began to be collected by connoisseurs.

? ? ? ? ? 另一種增加收入和傳播工作室聲譽(yù)的方法是生產(chǎn)銅版畫。從公元1470年起，這些銅版畫越來越受歡迎，不僅使那些經(jīng)濟(jì)條件較差的人能夠擁有一件藝術(shù)品，而且還有助于在歐洲傳播藝術(shù)思想。阿爾布雷希特·丟勒（公元1471-1528年）等藝術(shù)家，以及其他許多人，將其他藝術(shù)家的有趣的藝術(shù)作品的版畫和草圖匯編成冊。制作版畫的工藝水平可能非常高，精美的版畫甚至開始被鑒賞家們收藏。

Finally, a lucrative sideline - or for some more dubious workshops much more than that - was the production of fake antiquities. Such was the demand for Egyptian, Etruscan, Greek, and Roman pieces, some workshops produced modern versions and passed them off as ancient works, even sometimes staging an archaeological 'discovery' at a likely-looking site. Alternatively, new inscriptions were added to genuine antique pieces to make them more saleable. For the same reason, workshops often added missing limbs and noses to ancient statues or restyled older pieces, further blurring the lines between what was old and what was new art, a practice which has challenged art historians ever since.

? ? ? ? ? 最后，一個(gè)有利可圖的副業(yè)——或者對一些更可疑的作坊來說，遠(yuǎn)不止如此——是生產(chǎn)假古董。由于市場對埃及、伊特魯里亞、希臘和羅馬作品的需求量很大，一些作坊制作了仿制版本，并將其作為古董出售，有時(shí)甚至在一個(gè)看起來很可能出現(xiàn)古董的地點(diǎn)進(jìn)行考古"發(fā)現(xiàn)"?；蛘?，在真正的古董上添加新的銘文，使其更易于銷售。出于同樣的原因，工作室經(jīng)常在古代雕像上添加缺失的肢體和鼻子，或者對舊作品進(jìn)行重新造型，從而進(jìn)一步模糊了新舊藝術(shù)之間的界限，這種做法至今仍在挑戰(zhàn)著藝術(shù)史學(xué)家。