The diet of ancient Japan was heavily influenced by its geography as an archipelago, foodstuffs and eating habits imported from mainland Asia, religious beliefs, and an appreciation for the aesthetic appearance of dishes, not just the taste. Millet was replaced by rice as the main staple food from c. 300 BCE and seafood was preferred to meat, both for its abundance and because Buddhism, introduced in the 6th century CE, largely prohibited the killing of animals and birds. A wide variety of fruit and vegetables were available while tea and sake were the popular drinks, at least for the aristocracy.

? ? ? ? ? 古代日本的飲食在很大程度上受到其作為群島的地理環(huán)境、從亞洲大陸學(xué)習(xí)的食品與飲食習(xí)慣、宗教信仰以及對(duì)菜肴外觀美感的欣賞（不僅僅是味道）的影響。從公元前300年起，大米取代了小米，成為日本人的主食；海產(chǎn)品比家畜肉類更受歡迎，一方面是因?yàn)楹．a(chǎn)品豐富，另一方面是因?yàn)楣?世紀(jì)傳入的佛教在很大程度上禁止殺害動(dòng)物和鳥類。各式各樣的水果和蔬菜都有，茶和清酒則是受歡迎的飲料——至少對(duì)貴族來說是這樣。

地 理 與 天 氣

The geography of Japan is varied and so, therefore, is each region's capacity for agriculture. The Inland Sea basin between Honshu and Shikoku benefits from heavy rains during the growing season and sunny, dry days of subtropical temperatures prior to harvest, while late Autumn rains coming in with the Pacific Ocean winds and mild winters help winter crops. Delayed rains or early typhoons can destroy crops. In contrast, the north-west of Honshu receives icy winds and snow sweeping in from Asia.

? ? ? ? ? ?日本的地理環(huán)境各不相同，因此，每個(gè)地區(qū)的農(nóng)業(yè)能力也不盡相同。本州島和四國之間的內(nèi)海盆地得益于生長季節(jié)的大雨和收獲前亞熱帶氣溫的晴朗、干燥的日子，而晚秋的雨隨著太平洋的風(fēng)與溫和的冬季到來，有助于冬季作物的生長。延遲的降雨或早期的臺(tái)風(fēng)會(huì)毀壞農(nóng)作物。相比之下，本州島的西北部會(huì)收到來自亞洲的冰冷的風(fēng)與雪。

神 話 傳 說

Given the fickle whims of Nature and the real possibility of devastating weather phenomena which could wipe out crops, it is not surprising that the ancient Japanese conjured up deities to protect their interests.

? ? ? ? ? 鑒于大自然的變化無常，以及破壞性天氣使莊稼絕收的可能性，古代日本人企圖召喚出神靈來保護(hù)他們的利益也就不足為奇。

Food (shokumotsu) could have its own gods. There was a general and ancient food goddess from Ise, and Inari was established as the national rice god long after local rice gods had already been protecting farmers and promising them a good harvest when they received suitable offerings. Even rice fields had their own protective Shinto spirit, ta no kami. An important part of agriculture were religious ceremonies and rituals, especially around sowing and harvest time, which were meant to ensure a good crop and protect it from disasters. Ceremonies involving rice were particularly important and involved the emperor. Famine, too, was represented in mythology as an old crone who had set fish traps to deprive the people of salmon but who was eventually killed by the hero Okikurmi. Buddhism also featured food-related figures, notably Iorin, a manifestation of Kannon, who is the patroness of fishermen, and Ida-ten, the god of the meal in Zen sects. The latter is prayed to before meals and watches for any excess of appetite.

? ? ? ? ? 食物（shokumotsu）可以有自己的神。在伊勢(shì)，有一位古老的食物女神；而稻荷神，在當(dāng)?shù)氐拿咨褚呀?jīng)保護(hù)農(nóng)民并在收到合適的供品時(shí)承諾豐收之后，過了很久才被確立為全國的米神。即使是稻田也有自己的保護(hù)神靈，即ta no kami。宗教儀式和典禮是農(nóng)業(yè)的一個(gè)重要部分，特別是在播種與收獲的時(shí)候，這是為了確保豐收并保護(hù)其免受災(zāi)難。水稻的儀式特別重要，這涉及到統(tǒng)治者。饑荒在神話中被人們表現(xiàn)為一個(gè)老嫗，她設(shè)置捕魚器搶奪了人們的鮭魚，但她最終被英雄Okikurmi（アイヌラック?，阿伊努人之父或人類之父）殺死。佛教中也有與食物有關(guān)的人物，例如Iorin，她是觀音的化身，是漁民的守護(hù)神，還有Ida-ten，禪宗中的餐神。后者是人們?cè)陲埱捌矶\的神靈，他觀察人的任何多余的食欲。

農(nóng)? ? ?業(yè)

Agriculture (nogaku) in ancient Japan, as it remains today, was largely focussed on cereal and vegetable production, with meat only being produced in relatively limited quantities. Early food sources during the Jomon Period (c. 14,500 - c. 300 BCE or earlier) were millet and edible grasses. The first traces of crop cultivation date to c. 5700 BCE with slash-and-burn agriculture. Farming of specific and repeated areas of land occurred from c. 4,000 BCE.

? ? ? ? ? 古代日本的農(nóng)業(yè)（nogaku），就像今天一樣，主要集中于谷物和蔬菜的生產(chǎn)上，肉類的生產(chǎn)數(shù)量相對(duì)有限。繩文時(shí)代（約公元前14,500年-約公元前300年或更早）的早期食物來源是小米和可食用的植物。最早的作物種植痕跡可以追溯到大約公元前5700年的刀耕火種的時(shí)代。大約從公元前4000年開始，出現(xiàn)了對(duì)特定區(qū)域的重復(fù)耕作。

By far the most important staple food was rice. There is evidence of rice c. 1250 BCE, introduced to Japan via migrants from mainland Asia in the late Jomon Period, but its cultivation was likely not until c. 800 BCE. The first evidence of growing rice in wet fields dates to c. 600 BCE when the technique was introduced, again by migrants from Asia, during the transition from the Jomon to the Yayoi Period. The earliest paddy fields appeared in the south-west and then spread northwards. Yayoi immigrants also brought azuki beans, soybeans, wheat, and, from China, what has become the Japanese dish par excellence, sushi.

? ? ? ? ? 到目前為止，最重要的主食是大米。大約在公元前1250年，有證據(jù)表明水稻是在繩文時(shí)代后期通過亞洲大陸的移民傳入日本的，但其種植可能要到公元前800年才開始。在濕地上種植水稻的第一個(gè)證據(jù)可以追溯到公元前600年左右，在從繩文時(shí)代到彌生時(shí)代的過渡時(shí)期，這種技術(shù)也是由來自亞洲的移民引進(jìn)的。最早的水田出現(xiàn)在日本西南部，然后向北擴(kuò)展。彌生時(shí)代的移民還帶來了小豆、大豆、小麥，以及從中國帶來的已經(jīng)成為日本最出色的菜肴——壽司。

Agricultural was slow to develop, and it was not until the introduction of iron tools and techniques from Korea in the Kofun Period (c. 250 - 538 CE) that progress was made in efficiency. Even during the Nara Period (710-794 CE) agriculture still depended on primitive tools, not enough land was prepared for crops, and irrigation techniques were insufficient to prevent frequent crop failures and outbreaks of famine (notably in 730 CE and c. 1180 CE). There was some state support in the form of loans of seed-rice in the 9th century CE, but the interest rates were between 30 and 50%. Only the Kamakura Period (1183-1333 CE) and medieval times would see such techniques as double-cropping, better seed strains and a wider use of fertiliser.

? ? ? ? ? 農(nóng)業(yè)發(fā)展緩慢，直到古墳時(shí)代（約250-538年）從韓國引進(jìn)鐵制工具和技術(shù)，才在效率方面取得進(jìn)展。即使在奈良時(shí)代（公元710-794年），農(nóng)業(yè)仍然依賴于原始的工具，人們沒有足夠的土地用于種植，灌溉技術(shù)也不足以預(yù)防頻繁的作物歉收和饑荒的爆發(fā)（特別是在公元730年和公元1180年左右）。在公元9世紀(jì)，國家以貸款方式提供了一些種子水稻的支持，但利率在30-50%之間。只有在鐮倉時(shí)代（公元1183-1333年）和鐮倉時(shí)中期，才出現(xiàn)雙季稻、更好的種子品系和更廣泛地使用肥料等技術(shù)。

Given this unreliability, most small farmers preferred the greater security of working for landed aristocrats on their large estates (shoen). Only these estates were properly irrigated, and small independent farmers had to do with rainfall or natural underground sources, and so settle for dry field crops like millet (and hemp) as well as barley, wheat, and buckwheat. Rice, when grown in such conditions, was reserved to pay taxes. Other crops included barley and mulberry, the latter needed for the production of silk.

? ? ? ? ? 考慮到這種不可靠的情況（自然環(huán)境、耕作技術(shù)），大多數(shù)小農(nóng)寧愿選擇在大莊園（shoen）里為貴族們工作，因?yàn)檫@樣更有保障。只有這些莊園才有相應(yīng)的灌溉設(shè)施，而獨(dú)立的小農(nóng)戶只能依靠降雨或天然的地下水資源，因此只能種植小米（和麻）以及大麥、小麥和蕎麥等旱田作物。種植的水稻，被保留下來以支付稅收。其他作物包括大麥和桑樹，后者需要用于生產(chǎn)絲綢。

飲? ? ?食

As Japan is a collection of variously sized islands, seafood was easily acquired and was much more popular than meat, animal husbandry being a more costly and time-consuming source of food. Examples of seafood eaten are shellfish, seaweed, sea cucumber, bonito, bream, sea bass, eel, carp, mackerel, sardine, salmon, trout, shark, prawns, squid, jellyfish, and crab. Fish, if not eaten fresh and on site, was transported inland dried.

? ? ? ? ? 由于日本是一個(gè)大小不一的島嶼的集合體，人們很容易獲得海產(chǎn)品，而且比肉類更受歡迎；畜牧業(yè)生產(chǎn)的肉類更昂貴和耗時(shí)。吃的海鮮，有貝類、海藻、海參、鰹魚、鳊魚、海鱸魚、鰻魚、鯉魚、鯖魚、沙丁魚、鮭魚、鱒魚、鯊魚、大蝦、魷魚、海蜇和螃蟹。如果新鮮的魚吃不完，就會(huì)曬干并運(yùn)往內(nèi)陸。

When Buddhism was introduced into Japan in the 6th century CE and then officially adopted and sponsored by the state, the religion, with its avoidance of killing animals and birds, provided another reason for seafood and vegetables to dominate the Japanese diet. Buddhism did not prohibit the eating of all types of meat, with wild boar and venison being exceptions to the rule. Pheasant was another meat which maintained its popularity. It is also true that some Buddhist sects were stricter and required their followers to eat a vegetarian diet.

? ? ? ? ? 當(dāng)佛教在公元6世紀(jì)傳入日本，然后被國家正式采納和贊助時(shí)，由于宗教避免殺害動(dòng)物和鳥類的教義，為海鮮和蔬菜在日本飲食中占主導(dǎo)地位提供了另一個(gè)條件。佛教并不禁止食用所有類型的肉類，野豬和鹿肉是例外。野雞是另一種保持其受歡迎程度的肉類。一些佛教教派也確實(shí)比較嚴(yán)格，要求他們的信徒吃素食。

They send cormorants forth

Over the upper shoals,

They cast dipper nets

Across the lower shoals.

Mountain and river

Draw together to serve her -

A god's reign indeed!

Manyoshu poem by Kakinomoto Hitomaro on Natures bounty for Empress Jito (Ebrey, 150).

他們把鸕鶿送到

上面的灘涂上。

他們將北斗七星網(wǎng)

穿過下游的灘涂。

山川和河流

凝聚在一起，為她服務(wù)。

真是神的統(tǒng)治!

柿本人麻呂的《萬葉集》，關(guān)于大自然對(duì)持統(tǒng)女天皇的恩賜（Ebrey，150）。

The best-known period regarding Japanese diet is the Heian Period (794-1185 CE) when literature flourished and references to eating practices can be found amongst the court intrigues and romantic interludes. Our knowledge is largely restricted to that of the aristocracy as they were the ones who wrote the literature and they concentrated on their own lavish dinner parties held in their pleasure palaces of the capital Heiankyo (Kyoto). We can imagine that the diet of the ordinary population was much less palatable, although it might have been healthier as many a noble court writer alludes to the boils and other maladies related to malnutrition which plagued the imperial court.

? ? ? ? ? 有關(guān)日本飲食，最著名的時(shí)期是平安時(shí)代（公元794-1185年），當(dāng)時(shí)的文學(xué)很繁榮，在宮廷陰謀和浪漫的插曲中可以找到有關(guān)飲食習(xí)慣的記載。我們的認(rèn)知在很大程度上局限于貴族階層，因?yàn)樗麄兪亲珜懳膶W(xué)作品的人，他們專注于自己在首都平安京（京都）的歡樂宮中舉行的豪華晚宴。我們可以想象，普通人的飲食就不那么可口了，盡管它可能更健康，因?yàn)樵S多貴族宮廷作家都提到了困擾朝廷的癤子和其他與營養(yǎng)不良有關(guān)的疾病。

Aristocrats had two meals a day - one at around 10 am and the second at 4 am but, again, we can imagine that labourers and farmers probably ate early and late in the day so as not to interfere with their work. People would have eaten snacks, too, of fruit, nuts, or rice cakes, for example.

? ? ? ? ? 貴族們一天吃兩頓飯——一頓在上午10點(diǎn)左右，第二頓在凌晨4點(diǎn)。但是，我們可以想象，勞工和農(nóng)民可能在早中晚都要吃飯，為他們的勞作提供能量。人們也會(huì)吃零食，例如水果、堅(jiān)果或米餅。

Rice, the staple, was boiled, steamed, or cooked and then dried. It was mixed with vegetables to make rice cakes or made into a thick porridge and spiced up with vegetables or other cereals. Popular vegetables included the versatile soybean which could be made into a flavouring paste (miso), tofu (bean curd), or soy sauce. There were red beans, Japanese sweet potatoes, bamboo shoots, aubergines, cucumbers, burdock, onions, spring onions, yams, and radishes. They were eaten raw or boiled, steamed or pickled. Food was seasoned using salt, ginger, mint, garlic, vinegar, and fish broth. A sweeter taste was achieved by adding honey, a rice jelly, or a liquid known as amazura which was pressed from wild grapes. Another way to add extra taste was cooking using walnut or sesame oil.

? ? ? ? ? 大米作為主食，被煮熟、蒸熟或煮熟后曬干。它與蔬菜混合制成米餅，或制成濃粥，并用蔬菜或其他谷物進(jìn)行調(diào)味。受歡迎的蔬菜包括用途廣泛的黃豆，它可以被制成調(diào)味醬（味噌）、豆腐（豆制品）或醬油。還有紅豆、日本紅薯、竹筍、茄子、黃瓜、牛蒡、洋蔥、蔥、山藥和蘿卜。它們可以生吃，也可以煮著吃、蒸著吃或腌著吃。食物是用鹽、姜、薄荷、大蒜、醋和魚湯來調(diào)味的。人們通過添加蜂蜜、米果凍或從野葡萄中壓榨出來的一種被稱為阿馬蘇拉（amazura）的液體，可以獲得更甜的味道。另一種增加額外味道的方法是使用核桃油或芝麻油烹飪。

Fruit available included peaches, the Japanese orange, tangerines, persimmons, loquats, plums, pomegranates, apples, raspberries, and strawberries. There were also nuts such as chestnuts, walnuts, and pine nuts. Fats were provided (probably in insufficient quantities) by eggs, milk and butter products.??

? ? ? ? ? 水果包括桃子、日本橙、橘子、柿子、枇杷、李子、石榴、蘋果、覆盆子和草莓。還有一些堅(jiān)果，如栗子、核桃和松子。脂肪由雞蛋、牛奶和黃油產(chǎn)品提供（少數(shù)）。??

Such quintessential Japanese dishes as tempura and sukiyaki were introduced to the islands much later - tempura via the Portuguese in the 16th century CE and sukiyaki in the early 20th century CE after beef was made fashionable there by western Europeans.

? ? ? ? ? 天婦羅和壽喜燒等典型的日本菜是很晚才出現(xiàn)的——天婦羅是在16世紀(jì)葡萄牙人來的時(shí)候出現(xiàn)的，而壽喜燒是在20世紀(jì)初牛肉成為流行食物后（生活在日本的外國人引入了食肉文化）出現(xiàn)的。

Tea (cha) was another popular introduction from China (6th-7th century CE), and according to tradition it first grew from a bush which grew from the discarded eyelids of the sage Daruma (aka Boddhidarma), the founder of Zen Buddhism. Also, from China came better tea plants and the elaborate ceremony involved in its preparation (chanoyu). Tea drinking was first adopted by Zen Buddhist monks as it was thought to aid meditation and ward off sleep. The drink was also considered to have medicinal qualities. The tea was prepared by pounding the leaves and making a ball with amazura or ginger, which was then left to brew in hot water. Eventually, from 1200 CE, specialised tea schools were opened, people drank in dedicated tea rooms (chashitsu), and people's finest porcelain was reserved for tea drinking.

? ? ? ? ? 茶（Cha）是另一種從中國引進(jìn)的流行產(chǎn)品（公元6-7世紀(jì)），根據(jù)記載，它最早是從禪宗創(chuàng)始人達(dá)摩（又名Boddhidarma）的廢棄眼皮上長出的灌木。此外，從中國傳來了更好的茶葉品種和精心準(zhǔn)備的儀式（chanoyu）。飲茶最早是由禪宗僧侶發(fā)明的，因?yàn)樗徽J(rèn)為有助于冥想和驅(qū)趕睡眠。這種飲料也被認(rèn)為具有藥用價(jià)值。茶的制備方法是將茶葉搗碎，與天竺葵或生姜制成球，然后放在熱水中沖泡。從公元1200年開始，日本開設(shè)了專門的茶葉學(xué)校，人們?cè)趯ｉT的茶室（chashitsu）里喝茶，人們用最好的瓷器飲茶。

Finally, one important drink which, again, remains a quintessential symbol of Japan is sake or rice wine. In mythology, the drink comes from Tokyo, a gift from Sukunabikona, the god of magic and healing. Sake was and is a common offering to the gods of Shinto shrines. Finally, illustrating the antiquity of sake and its importance in Japanese culture, Otomo no Tabito (665-731) famously composed 13 poems praising the drink, and here is one of them:

Instead of fretting

Over things of no avail,

It would seem better

To drink a cupful

Of clouded sake.

(Keene, 137)

最后，有一種重要的飲料，它是日本的一個(gè)典型象征，那就是清酒或米酒。在神話中，這種飲料來自東京，是魔法和治療之神Sukunabikona的禮物。清酒在過去和現(xiàn)在都是向神道教神社的神靈們提供的常見祭品。為了說明清酒的古老和它在日本文化中的重要性，大伴旅人（665-731）創(chuàng)作了13首贊美清酒的著名詩歌，這是其中之一：

而不是為那些無用的東西煩惱

為無用的事情煩惱。

似乎更好

喝一杯

濁酒。

(Keene, 137)

參考書目：

Ashkenazi, M. Handbook of Japanese Mythology. Oxford University Press, 2008.

Beasley, W.G. The Japanese Experience. University of California Press, 2000.

Ebrey, P.B. Pre-Modern East Asia. Wadsworth Publishing, 2013.

Habu, J. Ancient Jomon of Japan. Cambridge University Press, 2004.

Henshall, K. Historical Dictionary of Japan to 1945. Scarecrow Press, 2013.

Keene, D. Seeds in the Heart. Columbia University Press, 1999.

Mason, R.H.P. A History of Japan. Tuttle Publishing, 1997.

Sansom, G. A History of Japan to 1334. Stanford University Press, 1958.

Seligman, L. "The History of Japanese Cuisine." Japan Quarterly, April 1994, 41, 2, pp. 165-180.

Whitney Hall, J. The Cambridge History of Japan, Vol. 2. Cambridge University Press, 1999.

作者：Mark Cartwright

????????? 駐意大利的歷史作家。他的主要興趣包括陶瓷、建筑、世界神話和發(fā)現(xiàn)所有文明的共同思想。他擁有政治哲學(xué)碩士學(xué)位，是《世界歷史百科全書》的出版總監(jiān)。

原文網(wǎng)址：

https://www.worldhistory.org/article/1082/food--agriculture-in-ancient-japan/