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【簡(jiǎn)譯】古代地中海地區(qū)的橄欖

2022-09-23 10:08 作者:神尾智代 0人讀過(guò) | 我要投稿

Olives and olive oil were not only an important component of the ancient Mediterranean diet but also one of the most successful industries in antiquity. Cultivation of the olive spread with Phoenician and Greek colonization from Asia Minor to Iberia and North Africa and fine olive oil became a great trading commodity right through to the Roman period and beyond. The olive also came to have a wider cultural significance, most famously as a branch of peace and as the victor's crown in the ancient Olympic Games.

? ? ? ? ? 橄欖和橄欖油不僅是古代地中海飲食中的重要組成部分，也是古代最成功的產(chǎn)業(yè)之一。橄欖的種植隨著腓尼基人和希臘人從小亞細(xì)亞到伊比利亞與北非的殖民化而傳播開(kāi)來(lái)，精致橄欖油一直到羅馬時(shí)期及以后都是一種重要的貿(mào)易商品。橄欖還具有更廣泛的文化意義，最著名的是橄欖枝編制的和平樹(shù)枝和古代奧林匹克運(yùn)動(dòng)會(huì)中勝利者的皇冠。

地域分布情況

The olive was first cultivated around 5000 BCE, or even earlier, on the Carmel coast of ancient Israel. Here simple olive presses have been excavated at the Neolithic site of Kfar Samir. The success of the industry is attested by records of olive oil exports to Greece and Egypt throughout the 3rd millennium BCE. Greece started to produce its own olives on Minoan Crete and Cyprus in the Late Bronze Age and, thereafter, on the mainland. The Greeks, like the peoples of the Levant, were soon producing a surplus of olives and olive oil so that they built up a lucrative export industry. Such was its importance that it was the only permissible export in the celebrated laws created by Solon (c. 640 – c. 560 BCE). With the process of Phoenician and Greek colonization olive trees (Olea europea) sprang up across the ancient Mediterranean where all that was needed was warm summers and relatively light rainfall for these hardy trees to thrive.

? ? ? ? ? 橄欖樹(shù)最早可能出現(xiàn)于公元前5000年左右，甚至更早，在古代以色列的卡梅爾海岸開(kāi)始種植。在以色列海法的新石器時(shí)代遺址中，考古學(xué)家已經(jīng)發(fā)掘出簡(jiǎn)單的橄欖榨油機(jī)。在整個(gè)公元前三千年中，橄欖油出口到希臘和埃及的記錄證明了這個(gè)行業(yè)在地中海地區(qū)的成功。希臘在青銅時(shí)代晚期開(kāi)始在米諾斯克里特島和塞浦路斯生產(chǎn)自己的橄欖，此后又在大陸上種植生產(chǎn)。希臘人和黎凡特人一樣，很快發(fā)現(xiàn)橄欖和橄欖油產(chǎn)能過(guò)剩，因此他們建立了一個(gè)有利可圖的出口行業(yè)。由于橄欖重要性，在梭倫（約公元前640年-約公元前560年）制定的著名法律中，它是唯一允許的出口產(chǎn)品。隨著腓尼基人和希臘人的殖民化進(jìn)程，橄欖樹(shù)（Olea europea）種植在整個(gè)古地中海地區(qū)興起，在地中海地區(qū)種植只需要溫暖的夏天和相對(duì)較少的降雨量，這些堅(jiān)韌的樹(shù)木就能茁壯成長(zhǎng)。

Trees were spread to new areas by planting cuttings and ovules (trunk growths), or grafting domesticated trees onto wild ones. The Romans planted their cuttings in dedicated nursery beds to help them on their way. Long-lived and drought-resistant, the tree was a handily low-maintenance form of farming. Olive growers usually planted their trees in amongst fruit trees and reared animals so as to have some income in case of an olive crop failure, and it was an easy way to keep groves grass and weed free. The residue from pressing oil from olives could also be used as feed, especially for pigs.

? ? ? ? ? 橄欖樹(shù)通過(guò)種植插條和胚珠（樹(shù)干生長(zhǎng)），或?qū)ⅠZ化的樹(shù)木嫁接到野生的樹(shù)木上，被傳播到新地區(qū)。羅馬人將他們的插條種植在專(zhuān)門(mén)的苗圃里，以幫助其發(fā)育成長(zhǎng)。橄欖樹(shù)壽命長(zhǎng)，耐干旱，是一種方便的低維護(hù)的作物。橄欖種植者通常將他們的樹(shù)種在果樹(shù)和飼養(yǎng)的動(dòng)物之間，以便在橄欖歉收的情況下有一些額外收入，而且這也是保持小樹(shù)林無(wú)草和雜草的一個(gè)簡(jiǎn)單方法。從橄欖樹(shù)上榨出的油的殘?jiān)部梢宰鳛轱暳?，特別是作為豬飼料。

From the 1st to 3rd centuries CE the Romans spread olive cultivation to more marginal growing areas such as central Tunisia and western Libya, which required extensive irrigation systems to make the farming viable. The Romans' dependency on olive oil is illustrated by Septimius Severus' decision to collect it as part of the taxes imposed on provinces and then redistribute it to the populace of Rome. As the Roman Empire expanded, so too did demand for olive oil, with Constantinople becoming one of the biggest importers. Indeed, the establishment of a huge number of olive farms (and vineyards) across Syria and Cilicia to meet this demand are credited with creating a regional economic boom in the 3rd-5th centuries CE.

? ? ? ? ? 從公元1世紀(jì)到3世紀(jì)，羅馬人將橄欖種植推廣到更多的邊緣種植區(qū)，如突尼斯中部和利比亞西部，這些地區(qū)需要廣泛的灌溉系統(tǒng)來(lái)使耕作可行。塞提米烏斯·塞維魯斯決定將橄欖油作為對(duì)各省征收的稅收的一部分，然后將其重新分配給羅馬的民眾，這說(shuō)明了羅馬人對(duì)橄欖油的依賴(lài)性。隨著羅馬帝國(guó)的擴(kuò)張，人們對(duì)橄欖油的需求也越來(lái)越大，君士坦丁堡成為橄欖油最大的進(jìn)口國(guó)之一。事實(shí)上，為了滿(mǎn)足這種需求，羅馬人在敘利亞和西里西亞建立了大量的橄欖園（和葡萄園），這在公元3-5世紀(jì)創(chuàng)造了地區(qū)經(jīng)濟(jì)的繁榮。

The largest olive producers in the ancient world then were Greece, Italy, the Levant, the north coast of Africa, Spain, and Syria. Places which enjoyed a particularly high reputation in antiquity for fine quality oil included Attica, Baetica (in Spain), Cyrenaica (Libya), Samos, and Venafrum (Italy).

? ? ? ? ? ?古代世界最大的橄欖生產(chǎn)國(guó)是希臘、意大利、黎凡特、非洲北岸、西班牙和敘利亞。在古代，因優(yōu)質(zhì)橄欖油而享有極高聲譽(yù)的地方包括阿提卡、貝提卡（西班牙）、昔蘭尼加（利比亞）、薩摩斯和維納夫倫（意大利）。

生? ? ?產(chǎn)

Table-olives (made edible by salting) were eaten, but most of the crops produced went into making oil. Although oil was a common product, it was not necessarily a cheap one and, as with wine, there were different grades of quality. Olive trees produce a full harvest only every other year, sometime from October to December, and the Greeks believed that the earlier they were harvested (when still green) and pressed, the finer the oil. However, leaving collection later in the season allows for the olives to continue growing, ripen so that they become black, and so more oil can be pressed from them. The finest quality oil, as today, came from the first pressing and when the mash had the minimum number of stones in it.

? ? ? ? ? ?人們食用橄欖（鹽漬），但生產(chǎn)的大部分橄欖都被用來(lái)制油。盡管橄欖油是一種常見(jiàn)的產(chǎn)品，但它不一定是一種廉價(jià)的產(chǎn)品，而且和葡萄酒一樣，有不同的質(zhì)量等級(jí)。橄欖樹(shù)每隔一年才收獲一次，從10月到12月的某個(gè)時(shí)候是橄欖收獲期，希臘人認(rèn)為越早采摘（當(dāng)橄欖還是綠色的時(shí)候）和壓榨，油就越優(yōu)質(zhì)。然而，在這個(gè)季節(jié)的晚些時(shí)候不收集，可以讓橄欖繼續(xù)生長(zhǎng)，成熟，使它們變成黑色，因此可以從它們身上榨出更多的橄欖油。像今天一樣，最優(yōu)質(zhì)的橄欖油來(lái)自于第一次壓榨，而且是在醪液中含有最少石頭的時(shí)候。

Olives were crushed either underfoot (the crusher wearing wooden sandals), with pestle and mortar, using a stone roller, or in presses, the first mechanical ones coming from Klazomenai in Turkey. Dating to the 6th century BCE, these used a beam anchored to a wall and a stone weight to increase the pressure and efficiency of the press. The earliest known presses in Greece come from Olynthos. Several examples have been excavated which used circular millstones to crush the olives. One of the best-preserved olive presses comes from Hellenistic Argilos in northern Greece. As the machine evolved, a winch was added to bring down the beam with greater force.

? ? ? ? ? 橄欖被工人踩在腳下（壓榨者穿著木制涼鞋），用杵和臼，用石輥，或者用壓榨機(jī)壓榨，最早的機(jī)械壓榨機(jī)來(lái)自土耳其的克拉佐美納伊。這些壓榨機(jī)可追溯到公元前6世紀(jì)，它們使用一個(gè)固定在墻上的橫梁和石頭重物來(lái)增加壓力和壓榨效率。希臘已知最早的壓榨機(jī)來(lái)自?shī)W林索斯。有幾個(gè)壓榨機(jī)已經(jīng)被挖掘出來(lái)，它們使用圓形磨石來(lái)壓榨橄欖。保存最完好的橄欖壓榨機(jī)之一來(lái)自希臘北部的希臘化的Argilos。隨著機(jī)器的發(fā)展，人們?cè)趬赫C(jī)上增加了一個(gè)絞盤(pán)，可以用更大的力量將橫梁下拉。

As with most areas of everyday life, the Romans went one step further and made oil on a much larger scale. Large estates are described in detail by such authors as Cato. The Roman writer describes in his De agricultura the annual yield of one producer as between 50,000 and 100,000 litres of oil. The Romans first used a circular stone press (trapetum) which consisted of a large stone bowl (mortarium) into which the olives were poured and then crushed under two concave stones (orbes) attached to a central beam (cupa) fixed to an iron pivot (columella). This apparatus then slotted onto a central post (miliarium) set into the bowl which allowed the stones to be turned inside it. These rotary stone mills often harnessed animal power using mules to further increase efficiency. The Romans also moved on from the traditional beam and winch press to screw presses which dramatically increased the crushing pressure. This helped meet the ever-growing demand for olive oil as the empire expanded and resulted in production quantities not seen again until the 19th century CE.

? ? ? ? ? 與日常生活的大多數(shù)領(lǐng)域一樣，羅馬人更進(jìn)一步，在更大的范圍內(nèi)壓榨橄欖油。加圖等作家對(duì)大型橄欖莊園進(jìn)行了詳細(xì)描述。這位羅馬作家在他的De agricultura中描述了一個(gè)莊園的橄欖油年產(chǎn)量為50,000到100,000升油。羅馬人首先使用了一種圓形的石頭壓榨機(jī)（trapetum），包括一個(gè)大的石碗（mortarium），將橄欖倒入其中，然后在兩個(gè)凹形的石頭（orbes）下壓榨，這兩個(gè)石頭連接到一個(gè)固定在鐵樞軸（columella）上的中央梁（cupa）。然后，這個(gè)裝置被安裝在碗里的中央柱子（miliarium）上，使石頭可以在里面轉(zhuǎn)動(dòng)。這些旋轉(zhuǎn)式石磨經(jīng)常利用騾子的動(dòng)物力量來(lái)進(jìn)一步提高效率。羅馬人還從傳統(tǒng)的橫梁和絞盤(pán)式壓榨機(jī)轉(zhuǎn)向螺旋式壓榨機(jī)，大大增加了壓榨壓力。帝國(guó)的擴(kuò)張促進(jìn)了人們對(duì)橄欖油不斷增長(zhǎng)的需求，這種生產(chǎn)量直到公元19世紀(jì)才再次出現(xiàn)。

Once pressed, the oil was drained off into a large stone settling tank set in the floor of the press room. Here the liquid mix of water, olive juice, and oil would settle and the oil rose to the surface where it could be skimmed off using a ladle or, alternatively, a tap in the base of the tank could be opened to drain away the water. When ready the finished oil was then stored in terracotta containers. At a pressing workshop on Delos six large pithoi vases held up to 4,000 litres of oil. There are records that oil produced in North Africa was shipped to Rome in oilskins. The most common storage vessel, though, was the amphora. These were very often stamped with such information as the producer's mark, place of manufacture, or production date, and then, if not used locally, were shipped across the Mediterranean.

? ? ? ? ? ?榨油后，油被排到一個(gè)大的石頭沉淀池中，沉淀池設(shè)置在榨油室的地板上。在這里，水、橄欖汁和油的混合液會(huì)沉淀下來(lái)，油會(huì)上升到表面，可以用勺子把它撇下來(lái)，或者，可以打開(kāi)罐子底部的水閥，把水排走。準(zhǔn)備好后，成品油被儲(chǔ)存在陶土容器中。在德洛斯島的一個(gè)榨油作坊，六個(gè)大的希臘壺可容納4000升油。有記錄顯示，在北非生產(chǎn)的橄欖油被裝在油皮船中運(yùn)往羅馬。不過(guò)，最常見(jiàn)的儲(chǔ)存容器是雙耳瓶。這些容器上往往印有生產(chǎn)者的標(biāo)記、制造地點(diǎn)或生產(chǎn)日期等信息，當(dāng)然，如果不在當(dāng)?shù)厥褂茫@些橄欖油會(huì)被運(yùn)往地中海彼岸銷(xiāo)售。

用? ? ?途

Not only were olives and olive oil an important part of the Mediterranean diet and cooking process (and still are, of course) but the oil produced from pressed olives was also used for many other purposes. Greeks and Romans used it to clean their bodies after exercise – smearing it on so that it collected dirt and sweat and then scraping it off using a metal instrument called a strigil. Olive oil was used as a fuel in terracotta (and more rarely metal) lamps, as an ingredient of perfumes, in religious rituals, for massages, as a multi-purpose lubricant, and even prescribed as a medicine.

? ? ? ? ? 橄欖和橄欖油不僅是地中海飲食和烹飪過(guò)程中的重要部分（現(xiàn)在仍然是），而且從壓榨橄欖中產(chǎn)生的油也被用于其他用途。希臘人和羅馬人在運(yùn)動(dòng)后用橄欖油來(lái)清潔身體——把它涂抹在身上，使其吸收污垢和汗水，然后用一種叫做涂抹器的金屬工具把它刮掉。橄欖油還可以作陶土燈（少數(shù)是金屬燈）的燃料，作為香水的成分，用于宗教儀式，按摩，作為多用途的潤(rùn)滑劑，甚至被當(dāng)作藥物食用。

文化的影響

The importance of the olive to Greek culture is seen in the appearance of the olive branch on Classical Athenian coins and its use in the crowns of victory at the Olympic Games. The Athenians considered the olive tree a gift from their patron goddess Athena, and this very tree grew on the acropolis of the city. They had an entire sacred grove of olive trees (moriae) too, from which oil was pressed and placed into uniquely decorated amphora vases to be given as prizes in the annual Panathenaic festival.

? ? ? ? ? 橄欖對(duì)希臘文化的重要性體現(xiàn)在古典雅典錢(qián)幣上出現(xiàn)的橄欖枝以及在奧運(yùn)會(huì)上使用的勝利之冠。雅典人認(rèn)為橄欖樹(shù)是他們的守護(hù)神雅典娜的禮物，而這種樹(shù)就生長(zhǎng)在雅典衛(wèi)城上。他們也有一整片神圣的橄欖樹(shù)林（Moriae），從這些樹(shù)上榨出的油被放入裝飾獨(dú)特的雙耳花瓶中，作為每年泛雅典娜節(jié)的獎(jiǎng)品。

Olive branches came to signify peace. Herodotus tells us that in the early 5th century BCE Aristagoras of Miletus carried one when he went to negotiate help from Cleomenes during the Ionian Revolt against Persia so that he would not be turned away from the Spartan king. Olive branches were also carried by pilgrims who visited the sacred oracle of Apollo at Delphi. The Romans continued this association and often depicted the god Mars, in his lesser-known guise as the bringer of peace, carrying an olive branch.

? ? ? ? ? 橄欖枝象征著和平。希羅多德告訴我們，公元前5世紀(jì)初，米利都的亞里士多德在愛(ài)奧尼亞起義對(duì)抗波斯時(shí)，為了不被斯巴達(dá)國(guó)王拒之門(mén)外，去和克里昂米尼一世談判，就帶了一根橄欖枝。朝圣者們也帶著橄欖枝去拜訪(fǎng)德?tīng)栰车陌⒉_神諭。羅馬人延續(xù)了這種聯(lián)系，并經(jīng)常描繪馬爾斯神，在他不太出名的情況下，作為和平的使者，手持橄欖枝。