十字軍東征

? ? ? ? ? 基督徒、穆斯林和猶太人的利益，在中東和歐洲大地上進(jìn)行的諸多十字軍東征過程中急劇交融。從11世紀(jì)到14世紀(jì)，九支基督教軍事遠(yuǎn)征隊以十字架為號召，在大敘利亞（Greater Syria，1914年前為今敘利亞、黎巴嫩、以色列和約旦的名稱）和埃及對穆斯林異教徒發(fā)動圣戰(zhàn)。十字軍在中東的目標(biāo)是從穆斯林手中奪回被視為基督教圣地的城市，特別是耶路撒冷，并對抗馬穆魯克（從公元9世紀(jì)至16世紀(jì)之間服務(wù)于阿拉伯哈里發(fā)和阿尤布王朝蘇丹的奴隸兵；隨著哈里發(fā)的式微和阿尤布王朝的解體，他們逐漸成為強(qiáng)大的軍事統(tǒng)治集團(tuán)，并建立了自己的伯海里王朝與布爾吉王朝，統(tǒng)治埃及達(dá)三百年之久（1250年－1517年），在北印度13世紀(jì)也有他們建立的王朝）以及后來的奧斯曼土耳其帝國不斷擴(kuò)張的勢力。在歐洲，十字軍獻(xiàn)出了他們的生命和財富，以摧毀法國的阿爾比十字軍的異端勢力，使東歐的普魯士異教徒皈依，并消滅了西班牙和葡萄牙的穆斯林。

The interests of Christians, Muslims, and Jews converged dramatically during all the crusades fought in the Middle East and on European soil. Between the 11th and 14th centuries nine Christian military expeditions took up the cross as the rallying symbol of their holy war against the Muslim infidel in Greater Syria and Egypt. Crusader goals in the Middle East were to recapture cities considered sacred to Christianity, especially Jerusalem, from the Muslims and to counteract the expanding power of the Mamluks and subsequently the Ottoman Turkish Empire. In Europe crusaders dedicated their lives and fortunes to destroying the heresy of the Albigensians in France, converting Prussian heathens in eastern Europe, and eliminating the Muslims from Spain and Portugal.

? ? ? ? ? 十字軍東征最初被稱為朝圣之旅。朝圣是一種懺悔性的奉獻(xiàn)行為，也是一種模仿基督的形式，即模仿基督的行為。十字軍將自己設(shè)想為朝圣者和“基督的戰(zhàn)士”（milites Christi）。他們背起十字架，追隨基督（參看Mt. 10:38），愿意通過與異教徒作戰(zhàn)來犧牲自己的生命，以贖回罪孽，就像基督犧牲自己的生命來救贖人類。

Crusades originally were called pilgrimages. A pilgrimage is an act of penitential devotion and a form of imitatio Christi, the imitation of Christ. Crusaders envisaged themselves as pilgrims and “soldiers of Christ” (milites Christi). They took up the cross and followed Christ (cf. Mt. 10:38), willing to sacrifice their lives through fighting the infidel in order to expiate sins, just as Christ had sacrificed his life to redeem humanity.

? ? ? ? ? 這種朝圣的意識形態(tài)和神圣的使命感使十字軍東征有別于拜占庭時期對穆斯林的戰(zhàn)爭。具有諷刺意味的是，十字軍東征始于拜占庭皇帝阿萊克修斯一世·科穆寧（1081-1118）向教皇烏爾巴諾二世（烏爾班二世，1088-99）提出的請求，即派遣遠(yuǎn)征軍協(xié)助他與塞爾柱土耳其人作戰(zhàn)。自八世紀(jì)以來，拜占庭人一直在與穆斯林軍隊交戰(zhàn)，這是伊斯蘭教擴(kuò)張的第一個世紀(jì)。然而，對他們來說，這些對抗在意識形態(tài)上是傳統(tǒng)的戰(zhàn)爭，與以前的敵人（如薩珊王朝的波斯人）的戰(zhàn)爭相類似。十字軍朝圣是一種不同的秩序，它帶來了精神和世俗的回報。教皇烏爾班二世在1095年的克萊芒會議上發(fā)表了振奮人心的講話，承諾加入十字軍的人“立即減免他們的罪孽”。作為朝圣者，十字軍還享有教會的招待權(quán)以及對自身和財產(chǎn)的保護(hù)。

This ideology of pilgrimage and sense of holy mission differentiate the Crusades from the Byzantine wars against the Muslims. Ironically, the Crusades began with a request from the Byzantine emperor Alexios I Comnenos (r. 1081–1118) to Pope Urban II (r. 1088–99) to send mercenary troops to assist him in his battle against the Seljuk Turks. The Byzantines had been at war with the Muslim armies since the eighth century, the first century of Islamic expansion. Yet for them these confrontations were conventional wars ideologically comparable to those fought against previous enemies such as the Sassanid Persians. The crusade- pilgrimage was of a different order and wrought spiritual and mundane rewards. Urban II’s rousing speech at the Council of Clermont in 1095 promised the crusaders “immediate remission of their sins.” As pilgrims the crusaders also enjoyed the rights of hospitality and protection of self and property by the church.

? ? ? ? ? 物質(zhì)方面的收獲也即將到來。烏爾班二世的布道對侵?jǐn)_西歐的社會暴力表示失望，基督教貴族們無視“上帝的和平”，為了個人的貪婪和利益而相互發(fā)動“非正義戰(zhàn)爭”，而不是對占領(lǐng)圣地的“野蠻圣像崇拜者”發(fā)動正義的戰(zhàn)爭。基督教征服者獲得特許權(quán)，以封地或王國的形式持有被征服的土地，盡管有些士兵將他們贏得的財產(chǎn)遺贈給了教會。

Material gains were forthcoming as well. Urban’s sermon expressed dismay over the social violence that was infesting western Europe. Christian nobles were ignoring the “Peace of God” and waging “unjust wars” against each other for private greed and gain instead of fighting the just war against the “barbarian idolaters” occupying the Holy Land. Christian conquerors received charters to hold the conquered land as fiefdoms or kingdoms, although some soldiers bequeathed their newly won property to the church.

第一次十字軍東征

? ? ? ? ? 教皇烏爾班二世在1095年的克萊芒會議上號召了第一次十字軍東征，以確保朝圣者能自由進(jìn)入耶路撒冷，并削弱塞爾柱土耳其人攻擊拜占庭帝國的力量。在貴族布永的戈弗雷（Godfrey of Bouillon）（卒于1100年）、圖盧茲的雷蒙德四世伯爵（卒于1105年）、諾曼底的羅伯特二世公爵（卒于1135年）、阿普利亞的坦克雷德（卒于1112年）以及阿萊克修斯一世的拜占庭軍隊的帶領(lǐng)下，十字軍于1098年占領(lǐng)了安提阿。

1099年，拉丁十字軍征服了耶路撒冷，對數(shù)以萬計的穆斯林和猶太人進(jìn)行了大屠殺，以致血流成河。布永的戈弗雷成為圣墓的保衛(wèi)者，戈弗雷的兄弟于1100年被加冕為耶路撒冷國王。20年來，基督教征服者在敘利亞和巴勒斯坦的海岸線上建立了十字軍國家，其中第一個國家是安提阿東部的埃德薩伯國。在到達(dá)耶路撒冷之前，德意志十字軍于1096年通過萊茵河谷進(jìn)軍，并威脅猶太人改變信仰，否則就會被屠殺。數(shù)以千計的猶太人要么被十字軍殺害，要么集體自殺，他們的殉教行為后來在猶太教禮儀中被謳歌。

Pope Urban II proclaimed the First Crusade at the Council of Clermont in 1095 to secure free access to Jerusalem for pilgrims and to eliminate the power of Seljuk Turks attacking the Byzantine Empire. Led by the nobles Godfrey of Bouillon (d. 1100), Count Raymond IV of Toulouse (d. 1105), Duke Robert II of Normandy (d. 1135), Tancred of Apulia (d.1112), and the Byzantine forces of Alexios I, the crusaders captured Antioch in 1098. The Latin crusaders conquered Jerusalem in 1099, perpetrating a massacre of tens of thousands of Muslims and Jews such that rivers of blood flowed through the streets. Godfrey became defender of the Holy Sepulcher. Godfrey’s brother was crowned king of Jerusalem in 1100. For two decades Christian conquerors established Crusader States along the coastline of Syria and Palestine, the first of which was the County of Edessa, east of Antioch. Prior to reaching Jerusalem German crusaders marched through the Rhine Valley in 1096 and threatened the Jews with the choice of conversion or slaughter. Thousands died either murdered by the crusaders or in mass suicides, their martyrdoms later eulogized in Jewish liturgy.

第二次十字軍東征

? ? ? ? ??1144年埃德薩伯國落入土耳其人之手，促使教皇尤金三世（安日納三世，1145-53年）于1147年召集第二次十字軍東征。法國卡佩王朝國王路易七世（1137-80年）和德意志霍亨斯陶芬王朝國王康拉德三世（1125-52年）帶領(lǐng)的軍隊都被塞爾柱土耳其人打敗。新成立的熙篤會修道院院長格萊福的圣伯爾納鐸（Saint Bernard of Clairvaux，1090-1153）在德國宣揚(yáng)的情緒化布道，無意中引發(fā)了萊茵地區(qū)的教徒對猶太人的再次屠殺。拜占庭統(tǒng)治者曼努埃爾一世（Manuel I Comnenos，1143-80年）將十字軍國家安條克公國、埃德薩伯國和耶路撒冷王國納入其保護(hù)范圍。同時，教皇尤金三世也賦予其“伊比利亞的重建者”的地位。1147年，葡萄牙王國和英格蘭的朝圣者通過聯(lián)合行動，從穆斯林手中奪回了里斯本（葡萄牙）。

The fall of Edessa to the Turks in 1144 provoked Pope Eugene III (r. 1145–53) to call the Second Crusade in 1147. Led by the Capetian king Louis VII of France (r. 1137–80) and the Hohenstaufen king Conrad III of Germany (r. 1125–52), both armies were defeated by the Seljuk Turks. The emotive sermons that Saint Bernard of Clairvaux (1090–1153), abbot of the newly founded Cistercian monastic order, preached in Germany inadvertently triggered renewed massacres of Jews in the Rhineland. The Byzantine ruler Manuel I Comnenos (r. 1143–80) established a protectorate over the Crusader States of Antioch, Edessa, and Jerusalem. Meanwhile, Pope Eugene III had also granted crusader status to the Reconquest of Iberia. Lisbon (Portugal) was conquered from the Muslims in 1147 in a joint venture by Portuguese and English pilgrims.

第三次十字軍東征

? ? ? ? ? 1187年，埃及阿尤布王朝的蘇丹薩拉丁（Saladin）（1174-93年）占領(lǐng)了耶路撒冷，并占領(lǐng)了拉丁-拜占庭的大部分領(lǐng)土。這促使教皇格里高利八世（1187年）和他的繼任者克萊門特三世（克萊孟三世，1187-91年）召集了1189-92年的第三次十字軍東征。這次十字軍東征是一次獨特的拉丁行動，由英格蘭的獅心王理查一世（1189-99年）

、法國的腓力二世（1180-1223年）和神圣羅馬帝國皇帝腓特烈一世-巴巴羅薩（1155-90年）共同領(lǐng)導(dǎo)。

In 1187 Saladin, the Ayyubid sultan of Egypt (r. 1174–93), captured Jerusalem and overran most of the Latin-Byzantine possessions. This motivated Pope Gregory VIII (r. 1187) and his successor, Clement III (r. 1187–91), to convoke the Third Crusade of 1189–92. This crusade was a uniquely Latin affair, jointly led by Richard I, Richard the Lionhearted, of England (r. 1189–99); Philip II of France (r. 1180–1223); and Holy Roman Emperor Frederick Barbarossa (r. 1155–90).

? ? ? ? ? 拜占庭皇帝伊薩克二世·安吉洛斯（Isaac II Angelos）（1185-95年，1203-04年在位）與薩拉丁密謀，阻撓腓特烈-巴巴羅薩從德國通過拜占庭，以換取帝國的安全。腓特烈在安條克溺水而亡，法軍和英軍之間缺乏補(bǔ)給和有效通信，而拜占庭人的背信棄義進(jìn)一步導(dǎo)致了十字軍東征的失敗。盡管十字軍奪取了阿卡，理查還是被迫向薩拉丁提出休戰(zhàn)請求，將耶路撒冷留在了阿尤布王朝的統(tǒng)治之下。

The Byzantine emperor Isaac II Angelos (r. 1185–95, 1203–04) had conspired with Saladin to thwart Frederick Barbarossa’s passage from Germany through Byzantium in exchange for his empire’s safety. Frederick’s untimely death by drowning in Antioch, lack of provisions and failed communications between French and English troops, and Byzantine perfidy led to the failure of the crusade. Despite capturing Acre, Richard was forced to sue for a truce with Saladin, leaving Jerusalem under Ayyubid rule.

第四次十字軍東征

? ? ? ? ? 教皇英諾森三世于1202年召集第四次十字軍東征，試圖重新奪回耶路撒冷。由于法國和英國處于戰(zhàn)爭狀態(tài)，德國也陷入了與教皇的爭端中，這次十字軍東征是由法國、意大利和德國的伯爵和一部分貴族們推動的。意大利蒙特費(fèi)拉特的博尼費(fèi)斯伯爵（1207年去世）與威尼斯教區(qū)談判達(dá)成協(xié)議，由威尼斯提供船只，將士兵運(yùn)往埃及。作為拜占庭皇帝的敵人，該教區(qū)長于1204年策劃了對君士坦丁堡的可怕洗劫行動，并隨后在君士坦丁堡建立了拉丁王國。

Pope Innocent III called the Fourth Crusade in 1202 in an attempt to reconquer Jerusalem. With France and England at war and Germany embroiled in a dispute with the papacy, the crusade was undertaken by counts and nobles from France, Italy, and Germany. The Italian count Boniface of Montferrat (d. 1207) negotiated an agreement with the Venetian doge for Venice to supply ships to transport the soldiers to Egypt. The doge, an enemy of the Byzantine emperor, engineered the terrible sacking of Constantinople in 1204 and the subsequent establishment of the Latin Kingdom of Constantinople.

其他前往圣地的十字軍

? ? ? ? ? 十字軍東征在13世紀(jì)持續(xù)了整整一個世紀(jì)，從1204年開始到1291年結(jié)束。教皇英諾森三世在1215年的第四次拉特朗公會議上再次發(fā)出收復(fù)耶路撒冷的呼吁。第五次十字軍東征（1217-21）由巴伐利亞、匈牙利和奧地利的軍隊領(lǐng)導(dǎo)，于1219年成功地征服了埃及的杜姆亞特，但在試圖攻占開羅時遭遇了巨大的失敗。被逐出教會的西西里島的腓特烈二世召集了第六次十字軍東征（1228-29），并通過談判，單槍匹馬地從穆斯林手中奪回了耶路撒冷。從1229年起，這座圣城一直在基督徒手中，直到1244年被馬穆魯克人征服。法國的路易九世（1226-70年）發(fā)動了第七次和第八次十字軍東征（分別為1248-54年，1270年）。這兩次針對埃及的大型十字軍東征都失敗了，拉丁國家慢慢地停止東征。英格蘭的愛德華一世（1274-1307年）在1271年發(fā)動了第九次十字軍東征，這將是收復(fù)耶路撒冷和遏制馬穆魯克蘇丹勢力的最后一次協(xié)同努力。1291年，最后一個基督教據(jù)點落入了看似不可戰(zhàn)勝的馬穆魯克手中。

The Crusades continued throughout the 13th century, beginning in 1204 and ending in 1291. Pope Innocent III issued another call to recover Jerusalem at the Fourth Lateran Council in 1215. The Fifth Crusade (1217–21), headed by the armies of Bavaria, Hungary, and Austria, succeeded in conquering Damietta in Egypt in 1219 but suffered a massive defeat when they tried to take Cairo. The excommunicated emperor Frederick II of Sicily convoked the Sixth Crusade (1228–29) and single-handedly recovered Jerusalem from the Muslims by negotiation rather than warfare. The holy city remained in Christian hands from 1229 until its recovery by the Mamluks in 1244. Louis IX of France (r. 1226–70) launched the Seventh and Eighth Crusades (1248–54, 1270, respectively). These two large crusades directed against Egypt failed, and the Latin States were slowly overrun. Edward I of England (r. 1274– 1307) launched the Ninth Crusade in 1271 in what would be the last concerted effort to recover Jerusalem and contain the power of the Mamluk sultans. In 1291 the last Christian stronghold fell to the seemingly invincible Mamluks.

? ? ? ? ? 在1291年至1464年期間，十字軍東征持續(xù)了近兩個世紀(jì)。1464年，積極倡導(dǎo)十字軍東征的教皇庇護(hù)二世去世。1396年，土耳其人在尼科波利斯擊敗了一支由基督教徒組成的大型遠(yuǎn)征軍。

Crusades were fought thereafter for nearly two centuries between 1291 and 1464, the year Pope Pius II, a vigorous champion of crusades, died. The Turks defeated a large expedition of Christian forces at Nicopolis in 1396.

阿爾比根十字軍東征（卡特里派十字軍）

? ? ? ? ? 歐洲當(dāng)?shù)劓?zhèn)壓異端的十字軍與遠(yuǎn)征伊比利亞的十字軍和奪回耶路撒冷的十字軍在兇猛程度上相仿。英諾森三世于1198年登上教皇寶座后，宣布對卡特里派進(jìn)行十字軍東征，發(fā)起了阿爾比根十字軍東征（1208-19）?？ㄌ乩锱墒且粋€由諾斯底二元論思想組成的異端教派，起源于11世紀(jì)的歐洲，他們視物質(zhì)為污穢，相信耶穌只是神圣的精神，拒絕舊約，并拒絕圣禮和教皇的權(quán)威。他們苦行僧般的虔誠、貧窮、純潔的生活方式，以及對使徒生活的魅力宣講和對基督的模仿，為他們贏得了無數(shù)的崇拜者?？ㄌ乩锱梢苑▏喜康睦矢穸嗫藶橹行模ò柋孺?zhèn)因阿爾比根十字軍而得名），在西班牙和法國北部、意大利和德國也吸引了大量追隨者。

Local European crusades suppressing heresy paralleled in ferocity the crusades against Islam in Iberia and against the Muslims to recapture Jerusalem. Upon ascending the papal throne in 1198, Innocent III declared a crusade against the Cathars, launching the Albigensian Crusade (1208–19). The Cathars were a heretical sect of Gnostic dualists, originating in 11thcentury Europe, who despised matter as filth, believed that Jesus was only divine spirit, rejected the Old Testament, and rejected the sacraments and papal authority. Their lifestyle of ascetic piety, poverty, purity, and charismatic preaching of the apostolic life and the imitation of Christ won them numerous adepts. The Cathars were centered in Languedoc in southern France—the town of Albi gave its name to the Albigensian Crusade—but attracted a significant following in northern Spain and France, Italy, and Germany.

? ? ? ? ? 法國貴族西蒙·德孟福爾（1218年）以極其殘酷的手段領(lǐng)導(dǎo)了阿爾比根十字軍，在整個普羅旺斯屠殺了數(shù)以萬計的卡特里派教徒和卡特里派教徒的同情者。與此同時，西班牙奧斯馬的圣道明（Saint Dominic Guzmán）（卒于1221年）于1216年成立了多米尼克修會，以正統(tǒng)的使徒理想為替代，對抗卡特里派。多米尼克修會（多明我會、道明會）的修士們管理著宗教裁判所，主導(dǎo)了對卡特里派教徒的逮捕、酷刑和處決，并在1321年將其消滅。阿爾比根十字軍摧毀了法國南部的大部分地區(qū)和普羅旺斯的主要宮廷，在野蠻的屠殺之后，宮廷愛情和游吟詩人的文化，以及基督徒、猶太人和其他商人繁榮發(fā)展的城鎮(zhèn)和市場都變成了燃燒的廢墟。

The Albigensian Crusade, led with great cruelty by the French noble Simon of Montfort (1218), resulted in the massacre of tens of thousands of Cathars and Cathar sympathizers throughout Provence. Meanwhile, Saint Dominic Guzmán of Spain (d. 1221) founded the Order of Preachers in 1216 to counter the Cathars with an orthodox alternative to the apostolic ideal. Dominican friars ran the Inquisition that led to the arrest, torture, and execution of Cathars and culminated in their destruction in 1321. The Albigensian Crusade destroyed much of southern France and the major Provencal courts and after savage slaughter left the culture of courtly love and the troubadours and the towns and markets where Christians, Jews, and other traders had thrived in smoldering ruins.

波羅的海十字軍東征（北方十字軍戰(zhàn)役）

? ? ? ? ? 波羅的海十字軍東征開始于12世紀(jì)末，一直持續(xù)到16世紀(jì)初。他們在利沃尼亞、普魯士、芬蘭和立陶宛作戰(zhàn)，主要角色是教皇及其拉丁傳教士、神圣羅馬帝國、斯堪的納維亞和波蘭貴族、德國和斯堪的納維亞商人，間接角色還有拜占庭帝國。與圣地和西班牙的十字軍東征相比，波羅的海十字軍東征的目的更明顯地是世俗上和精神上的。在1193年由教皇策肋定三世（1191-98年）召集的十字軍東征開始時，利沃尼亞、普魯士、芬蘭和立陶宛的人民仍然是異教徒，而且大多數(shù)人從事海盜活動。天主教傳教士遇到了激烈的抵抗，許多傳教士及新增的信徒都被殺害了。羅馬教會急于保護(hù)其傳教士和皈依者，并擔(dān)心波羅的海的異教徒可能會被永遠(yuǎn)詛咒為異教徒的錯誤，或在拜占庭人的壓力下皈依東正教會。

The Baltic Crusades began at the end of the 12th century and carried on until the early 16th century. They were fought in Livonia, Prussia, Finland, and Lithuania, and the main protagonists were the papacy and its Latin missionaries, the Holy Roman Empire, Scandinavian and Polish nobility, German and Scandinavian merchants, and tangentially the Byzantine Empire. The aims of the Baltic Crusades were more overtly mundane as well as spiritual than those of the crusades in the Holy Land and Spain. At the onset of the crusades, convoked by Pope Celestine III (r. 1191–98) in 1193, the peoples of Livonia, Prussia, Finland, and Lithuania were still pagans, and most engaged in piracy. Catholic missionaries had met with stiff resistance, and many of them and their converts had been murdered. Rome was anxious to protect its missionaries and converts and feared that the Baltic pagans might be eternally damned to heathen error or persuaded to convert to the Orthodox Church under pressure from the Byzantines.

? ? ? ? ? ?教會試圖結(jié)束異教徒的野蠻做法：殺嬰、人祭、圣像崇拜、海盜和公路搶劫。后者對試圖將其商業(yè)市場擴(kuò)展到巴爾干半島的日耳曼和斯堪的納維亞基督教商人構(gòu)成了嚴(yán)重威脅。丹麥、瑞典和波蘭的貴族也將巴爾干地區(qū)視為擴(kuò)大其帝國的機(jī)會，盡管這會面臨來自神圣羅馬帝國和拜占庭帝國的威脅。新成立的軍事組織也抓住機(jī)會，擴(kuò)大對被征服領(lǐng)土的控制，并對東正教會發(fā)動十字軍東征。對虔誠、政治權(quán)力和經(jīng)濟(jì)利益的追求在波羅的海十字軍東征中凝聚在一起。

The church sought to put an end to the pagans’ barbaric practices of infanticide, human sacrifice, idol worship, and piracy and highway robbery. The latter posed a serious threat to Germanic and Scandinavian Christian merchants seeking to extend their commercial markets into the Balkans. The nobility of Denmark, Sweden, and Poland also looked to the Balkans as an opportunity to expand their empires, albeit at the expense of the Holy Roman and Byzantine Empires. Newly formed military orders also seized the opportunity to expand control over conquered territories and wage crusades against the Orthodox Church. The quest for piety, political power, and financial gain coalesced in the Baltic Crusades.

宗教軍團(tuán)的作用

? ? ? ? ? 十字軍東征不僅是由非專業(yè)士兵進(jìn)行的。11世紀(jì)出現(xiàn)了一批信仰基督的修道士士兵，他們通常只對教皇負(fù)責(zé)，其使命是從“異教徒”手中奪回“本屬于”基督教的領(lǐng)土，并在國內(nèi)擊敗基督的異端敵人。各種戰(zhàn)斗修士組織在圣地和伊比利亞半島建立了據(jù)點，他們在這兩條戰(zhàn)線上的十字軍東征中發(fā)揮了關(guān)鍵作用。這些戰(zhàn)士受個人貧困、虔誠、服從和貞潔的修道院誓言的約束，但他們在所征服的地區(qū)積累了大量的財富和土地，這種情況使他們中的許多人與當(dāng)?shù)氐慕y(tǒng)治者發(fā)生了矛盾。

The crusades were not only fought by lay soldiers. A breed of monastic soldiers of Christ emerged in the 11th century, often answerable only to the pope, with the mission of recovering Christian lands from the “infidel” and defeating the heretical enemies of Christ at home. Various orders of warrior monks established strongholds in the Holy Land and the Iberian Peninsula, where they played a key role in the crusades on both fronts. Bound by monastic vows of personal poverty, piety, obedience, and chastity, these warrior soldiers nevertheless amassed vast sums of wealth and landholdings in the regions they conquered—a situation that would put many of them at odds with local rulers.

圣殿騎士團(tuán)

? ? ? ? ? 基督和所羅門圣殿的窮苦同胞士兵，通常被稱為圣殿騎士。圣殿騎士團(tuán)大約在1118年第一次十字軍東征之后于法國成立，以確保歐洲朝圣者安全地前往耶路撒冷?？巳R爾沃（Clairvaux）修道院院長伯納德（Bernard）親自設(shè)計了他們的修道院規(guī)則，教皇的批準(zhǔn)確保了該組織從虔誠的金錢和土地捐贈中獲得了大量的財富。圣殿騎士團(tuán)從他們位于耶路撒冷圣殿山的總部出發(fā)，作為十字軍戰(zhàn)士在圣地和西班牙作戰(zhàn)，并監(jiān)督一個龐大的金融網(wǎng)絡(luò)，向朝圣者借錢并資助十字軍東征。圣殿騎士團(tuán)與猶太銀行家和國際貿(mào)易商有職業(yè)上的交集，從事放貸活動，并在某些地方取代猶太人成為貨幣和信用證的主要持有人。他們巨大的權(quán)力和財富激起了法國國王腓力四世（1285-1314年）的憤怒和嫉妒，他指控他們?yōu)楫惗耍瑢⑺麄兇恫⑹┮钥嵝?，并迫使教皇克萊門特五世（克萊孟五世，1304-15）在1314年解散他們。

The Poor Fellow Soldiers of Christ and of the Temple of Solomon, more commonly known as the Knights Templar, were founded in France circa 1118 in the aftermath of the First Crusade to ensure the safe passage of European pilgrims to Jerusalem. The Cistercian abbot Bernard of Clairvaux personally designed their monastic rule, and papal sanction ensured that the order received vast sums of wealth from pious donations of money and land. From their headquarters on the Temple Mount in Jerusalem, the Knights Templar fought as crusaders in the Holy Land and Spain and oversaw a vast financial network lending money to pilgrims and financing the Crusades. Knights Templar professionally intersected with Jewish bankers and international traders, engaged in moneylending, and in certain places replaced the Jews as the principal holders of currencies and letters of credit. Their enormous power and wealth stoked the ire and envy of the French king Philip IV the Fair (r. 1285– 1314), who accused them of heresy, had them arrested and tortured, and forced Pope Clement V (1304–15) to disband them in 1314.

醫(yī)院騎士團(tuán)

? ? ? ? ? ?醫(yī)院騎士團(tuán)，又稱羅德騎士團(tuán)、馬耳他騎士團(tuán)、耶路撒冷圣約翰騎士團(tuán)，是第一次十字軍東征征服耶路撒冷后出現(xiàn)的另一個主要修道會。它大約于1100年在耶路撒冷成立，最初是為朝圣者提供的本篤會醫(yī)院，但后來轉(zhuǎn)變?yōu)橐粋€軍事組織。士兵修士們的任務(wù)是在圣地進(jìn)行十字軍東征，保護(hù)朝圣者和基督徒并為其提供醫(yī)療服務(wù)。醫(yī)院騎士團(tuán)得到了教皇的許可，將羅得島作為一個主權(quán)修道院國家來統(tǒng)治。他們從圣殿騎士團(tuán)的解散中受益，繼承了大部分曾被他們控制的領(lǐng)土。

The Knights Hospitaller, also known as the Knights of Rhodes, the Knights of Malta, and the Order of Saint John of Jerusalem, is the other major monastic order that emerged in the wake of the First Crusade’s conquest of Jerusalem. It was founded circa 1100 in Jerusalem originally as a Benedictine hospital for pilgrims but was subsequently transformed into a military order. The soldier monks divided their tasks between fighting the Crusades in the Holy Land and protecting and providing medical care to pilgrims and Christians. The Hospitallers received papal permission to rule Rhodes as a sovereign monastic state. They benefited from the dissolution of the Templars through inheriting most of the territories that had been under their control.

條頓騎士團(tuán)

? ? ? ? ? 條頓騎士團(tuán)是一個日耳曼修士軍事組織，成立于1190年，最初是為了向在第三次十字軍東征中受傷的德國朝圣者提供醫(yī)療護(hù)理。在13世紀(jì)初，他們的總督，即所謂的大總管，將他們的任務(wù)改為軍事行動。他們的總部設(shè)在巴勒斯坦的阿卡，主要致力于保衛(wèi)耶路撒冷和地中海之間的地區(qū)。在從神圣羅馬帝國皇帝那里得到慷慨的特權(quán)和土地后，條頓騎士團(tuán)在1226年古普魯士人攻擊神圣羅馬帝國邊界時，對德國皇帝和波蘭公爵進(jìn)行了救援。他們在擊敗古普魯士人和隨后的基督教化過程中發(fā)揮了突出作用。作為補(bǔ)償，教皇和諾理三世（1216-27）允許他們將普魯士作為一個主權(quán)修道院國家進(jìn)行管理。

The Knights Teutonic was a Germanic monastic order founded in 1190 initially to provide hospital care to German pilgrims injured during the Third Crusade. In the early 13th century their governor, known as the grand master, changed their mandate into a military order. They were based in Acre, Palestine, and devoted their efforts mainly to defending the area between Jerusalem and the Mediterranean Sea. Having received generous privileges and land from the Holy Roman Emperor, the Teutonic Knights came to the rescue of the German emperor and the duke of Poland when their borders were attacked in 1226 by the Prussians. They played a prominent role in the defeat of the Prussians and their subsequent Christianization. As compensation Pope Honorius III (r. 1216–27) granted them permission to govern Prussia as a sovereign monastic state.

西班牙和葡萄牙的軍事組織

? ? ? ? ? ?卡拉特拉瓦騎士團(tuán)于1164年被教皇亞歷山大三世定為一個熙篤會軍事組織。他們在對抗穆斯林時取得的驕人戰(zhàn)績?yōu)樗麄冓A得了卡斯蒂利亞和阿拉貢國王的財政支持，并授予他們大量的土地財產(chǎn)。在阿拉爾科斯戰(zhàn)役（1195年）中慘敗于穆瓦希德王朝（阿爾摩哈德王朝）之手后，他們被迫放棄在卡拉特拉瓦的基地，但在決定性的拉斯納瓦斯·德·托洛薩會戰(zhàn)（1212年）中恢復(fù)了基地?？ɡ乩邊⑴c了隨后對西班牙穆斯林的征服，并在此過程中獲得了大量的封建財產(chǎn)，成為被打敗的穆斯林的封建領(lǐng)主。他們巨大的財富和對世俗王國的政治自治使他們在14和15世紀(jì)基督教王國之間的內(nèi)戰(zhàn)中成為各方勢力競相角逐的目標(biāo)。

The Knights of Calatrava were confirmed as a Cistercian military order by Pope Alexander III in 1164. Their impressive successes against the Muslims earned them the financial support of the kings of Castile and Aragon, who granted them large landed estates. They were forced to abandon their base in Calatrava after the crushing defeat at the hands of the Almohads in the Battle of Alarcos (1195) but would recover it in the decisive Battle of Navas de Tolosa (1212). Calatrava participated in the ensuing conquests of Muslim Spain and in the process acquired vast feudal holdings and became feudal lords to the defeated Muslims. Their vast wealth and political autonomy from the secular kingdoms made them a target during the 14th- and 15- century civil wars between the Christian kingdoms.

? ? ? ? ? 圣地亞哥騎士團(tuán)在1175年獲得了教皇的認(rèn)可，成為一個軍事團(tuán)體，為往返于他們的守護(hù)神——位于西班牙西北部加利西亞的德孔波斯特拉的圣詹姆斯的朝圣者提供保護(hù)。圣地亞哥騎士團(tuán)還在通往德孔波斯特拉的朝圣路線上建立了醫(yī)院，因此既保持了軍事性質(zhì)，又保持了好客的特點。騎士團(tuán)還得到了敵對的萊昂王國、卡斯蒂利亞、阿拉貢和葡萄牙王國的承認(rèn)與支持，他們在從穆斯林手中征服的領(lǐng)土上給予他們廣泛的特權(quán)和封地。這種混合的效忠關(guān)系有時會使他們卷入基督教內(nèi)部的戰(zhàn)爭，從而轉(zhuǎn)移了對穆斯林的十字軍東征的精力。

The Order of Santiago gained papal recognition as a military order in 1175 to provide protection to pilgrims traveling to and from the shrine of their patron, Saint James of Compostela, located in Galicia in northwest Spain. The Knights of Santiago also built hospitals along the pilgrimage route to Compostela and thus maintained both a military and a hospitaller character. The order also received recognition and support from the rival Kingdoms of León, Castile, Aragon, and Portugal, who granted them extensive privileges and fiefdoms in the territories conquered from the Muslims. This mixed allegiance would embroil them sometimes in the internal Christian wars, which diverted efforts from the crusade against the Muslims.

? ? ? ? ? ?埃武拉圣瑪麗亞修士團(tuán)，后來被稱為阿維茲（阿維斯）騎士團(tuán)，成立于1146年，是模仿1128年在葡萄牙建立總部的圣殿騎士團(tuán)而建立的一個修道院軍事組織。阿維茲騎士團(tuán)遵守熙篤會的規(guī)則，并致力于對穆斯林的軍事戰(zhàn)爭。隨著1250年重建工作的完成，阿維茲修士還在1383年葡萄牙對西班牙王國的戰(zhàn)爭中為其辯護(hù)，后來還參加了對休達(dá)（1413）和丹吉爾（1437）的穆斯林的軍事遠(yuǎn)征行動。

The Brothers of Santa Maria de évora, later known as the Order of Aviz, was founded in 1146 as an offshoot of the Knights Templar, who had established headquarters in Portugal two decades earlier. The Knights of Aviz observed the Cistercian rule and devoted their efforts to military warfare against the Muslims. With the completion of the Reconquest in 1250, the Aviz monks defended Portugal in its war against the Kingdom of Spain in 1383 and would later participate in the military expeditions against the Muslims in Ceuta (1413) and Tangier (1437).

利沃尼亞騎士團(tuán)（寶劍利沃尼亞兄弟騎士團(tuán)）

? ? ? ? ??利沃尼亞騎士團(tuán)于1202年由里加的阿爾伯特主教（利沃尼亞采邑主教）建立，作為圣殿騎士團(tuán)的對應(yīng)組織。他們在1236年與立陶宛和瑟米加利亞人的戰(zhàn)斗中幾乎全軍覆沒。幸存者加入條頓騎士團(tuán)，成為一個獨立的騎士團(tuán)。他們與條頓騎士團(tuán)一起在1290年之前征服了拉脫維亞以及愛沙尼亞和立陶宛的部分地區(qū)。在十字軍戰(zhàn)爭期間，條頓騎士團(tuán)曾兩次試圖為自己奪取權(quán)力，建立一個獨立的修道院國家，第一次在特蘭西瓦尼亞，該地在1211年成為匈牙利王國的一部分；第二次在1226年在波蘭。他們被趕出特蘭西瓦尼亞，繼續(xù)對波蘭、立陶宛和羅斯的諾夫哥羅德大公國發(fā)動戰(zhàn)爭。他們在1242年被羅斯人打敗，結(jié)束了日耳曼人和教皇使東正教羅斯皈依天主教的愿望。1410年，條頓騎士團(tuán)在與波蘭-立陶宛聯(lián)盟的戰(zhàn)斗中遭受了最嚴(yán)重的失敗。

The Livonian Brothers of the Sword were founded in 1202 by the prince-bishop of Livonia as a counterpart to the Knights Templar. They were nearly annihilated in 1236 in a battle against Lithuanian and Semigallian tribes. The survivors joined the Knights Teutonic as an autonomous order. Together with the Knights Teutonic they would conquer Latvia and part of Estonia and Lithuania by 1290. Twice the Teutonic Knights tried to grab power for themselves during the course of crusader wars and establish an independent monastic state, first in Transylvania, then part of the Kingdom of Hungary in 1211, and then in Poland in 1226. They were driven out of Transylvania and continued to wage war against Poland, Lithuania, and the Russian Novgorod Feudal Republic. Their defeat by the Russians in 1242 put an end to Teutonic and papal aspirations to convert Orthodox Russia to Catholicism. The Teutonic Knights suffered their most serious defeat in 1410 against a Polish-Lithuanian coalition.

宗教裁判所

? ? ? ? ? 除了消滅異端的十字軍東征外，基督教會還建立了一個有效的異端司法起訴機(jī)制，即宗教裁判所?；浇填I(lǐng)導(dǎo)人認(rèn)為，要消除腐敗、污染、異端精神的誘惑，無論是猶太教、穆斯林還是本教，只要偏離了主流的教會教義，就必須使用最有力的武力來解決問題。持有異端思想的基督徒對教會權(quán)威尤其令人不安。那些否認(rèn)原罪、放棄三位一體、拒絕felix culpa（“幸運(yùn)的墮落”，即亞當(dāng)和夏娃墮落并被逐出伊甸園，導(dǎo)致基督降臨），以及直接接近上帝的基督徒威脅著教會的等級制度和表達(dá)基督教教義的禮儀。當(dāng)然，如果沒有罪的概念，那么整個強(qiáng)調(diào)懺悔、請求赦免、給予赦免、去朝圣和討伐都是無用和徒勞的。此外，如果一個人可以直接與上帝接觸，那么他就不需要支付任何財物來維護(hù)昂貴、豪華的教堂；豪華的建筑；和人數(shù)龐大的神職人員群體。

In addition to crusades to control heresy, the Christian Church established an effective juridical prosecution of heresy called the Inquisition. Christian leaders believed the strongest hand and rod were necessary to eliminate the seductive allure of corrupting, polluting, heretical spirits, whether Jewish, Muslim, or Christian, who strayed from the prevailing church doctrine. Christians who held heretical ideas were especially vexing to church authority. Christians who denied original sin, abjured the Trinity, rejected the felix culpa (“fortunate fall,” or Adam and Eve’s fall and expulsion from the Garden of Eden that led to the coming of Christ), and directly approached God threatened the Christian hierarchy of the church and also the liturgy expressing Christian dogma. Certainly, if there was no concept of sin, then the whole emphases on confession, request for absolution, granting of indulgences, going on pilgrimages, and crusading were useless and futile. Moreover, if one could contact God directly, one did not need to support an expensive, luxurious church; its lavish buildings; and its powerful clergy.

? ? ? ? ? 宗教裁判所通過結(jié)合教會和國家的權(quán)力而蓬勃發(fā)展?；艉嗨固辗一实垭杼亓叶涝?3世紀(jì)通過一項反對異端的世俗詔書加強(qiáng)了教會的意圖。腓特烈皇帝反對異端的法令使教會和國家之間的惡性團(tuán)結(jié)合法化，以杜絕所有宗教褻瀆者。不久，教皇格里高利建立了一個由多米尼加和方濟(jì)各會審訊員組成的法庭，他們同時也是檢察官、法官和陪審團(tuán)，但要負(fù)責(zé)拯救被告的靈魂。

The Inquisition thrived by combining the powers of church and state. The Hohenstaufen emperor Frederick II of Sicily strengthened the intentions of the church with a secular edict against heretics in the 13th century. Emperor Frederick’s Decree on Heretics legalized the pernicious unity between church and state to stamp out all blasphemers. Soon thereafter Pope Gregory established a tribunal of Dominican and Franciscan inquisitors who were simultaneously prosecutors, judges, and juries. Yet they also were responsible for saving the souls of the defendants.

宗教裁判所法庭

? ? ? ? ? 只有死亡才被認(rèn)為是對教會異端的適當(dāng)贖罪，只有死亡才是對世俗叛亂的適當(dāng)懲罰。對于宗教裁判所來說，要消滅異端，將異端等同于叛國罪是非常有用的，而叛國罪作為一種危害國家的世俗罪行，隨后被轉(zhuǎn)移到宗教裁判所法庭。審問者獲得了準(zhǔn)世俗的權(quán)力。教會宣布了法律判決，然后，它將被定罪的異教徒移交給世俗的最終懲罰。托馬斯·德·托爾克馬達(dá)（1420-98），卡斯蒂利亞和阿拉貢的大法官，是一位禁欲主義的多米尼加修士，尤其因其無情的殘酷性和可怕酷刑的獨創(chuàng)性而令人恐懼。

Only death was considered fit atonement for ecclesiastical heresy. Only death was fit punishment for secular treason. For the Inquisition to extirpate heresy it was useful to equate heresy with high treason, which, as a secular crime against the state, was then transferred to the Inquisition tribunal. The inquisitor acquired quasi-secular authority. The church pronounced the legal verdict. Then it turned over the convicted heretic for final secular punishment. Thomas de Torquemada (1420–98), the archinquisitor of Castile and Aragon, was an ascetic Dominican monk especially feared for his ruthless cruelty and terrible ingenuity in torture.

? ? ? ? ? 被告進(jìn)入宗教裁判所法庭時被推定為有罪，而不是無罪。只有當(dāng)被告能夠證明他或她與證人之間存在致命的敵意時，才能駁斥異端的證據(jù)。當(dāng)被脅迫作證的證人往往是被告的配偶或子女時，這是一個很難證明的指控。任何有罪的證人都是可以接受的，包括道聽途說的證詞，以便在定罪前向教會提供異端的“證據(jù)”。

The defendant entered the Inquisition court with the presumption of guilt, not innocence. Only if the defendant could prove deadly enmity between himself or herself and a witness could evidence of heresy be refuted. That was a tough charge to prove when the witness coerced into testifying often was the accused’s spouse or child. Any witness of guilt was acceptable, including hearsay testimony, to afford the church “proof” of heresy before condemnation.

? ? ? ? ? 被認(rèn)為值得憐憫的、懺悔的異端會受到各種肉體懲罰，從簡單的鞭打、毆打赤身裸體的囚犯，到長途朝圣，如從西班牙到耶路撒冷。其他懺悔的異教徒被強(qiáng)迫戴著十字架，這種異端的標(biāo)志將他們從基督教社區(qū)中排斥出去，使他們無法謀生。貼在房屋上的異端標(biāo)記一般會導(dǎo)致該異教徒的財產(chǎn)被沒收。異教徒的后代三代人都不能擔(dān)任公職，也不能接受其他合法的遺產(chǎn)。作為懲罰的監(jiān)禁從簡單的監(jiān)禁到可怕的活埋不等。

Repentant heretics thought worthy of mercy were punished with a variety of corporal penalties ranging from simple scourging, beating of a naked prisoner, to walking on long pilgrimages, such as to Jerusalem from Spain. Other repentant heretics wore the cross on their clothes, a sign of heresy ostracizing them from the Christian community and making them incapable of earning a living. The heretic’s mark affixed to a house generally led to confiscation of the property. Descendants of a heretic for three generations were prevented from holding public office and from receiving otherwise legal inheritances. Imprisonment as punishment ranged from simple incarceration to the horrific living grave.

? ? ? ? ? 在13世紀(jì)，焚燒成為對異端的合法處決方式。阿拉貢的彼得二世可能在神學(xué)家的建議下，賦予了燒死異端的懲罰以法律地位?；艉嗨固辗业碾杼亓叶来罅μ岢鹦?。13世紀(jì)中葉，威尼斯的教區(qū)長們在他們的就職宣誓中莊嚴(yán)地發(fā)誓要燒死異教徒。作為整個基督教世界的官方處決方法，1231年的教皇法規(guī)要求普遍使用火刑。甚至連早已死去的異教徒的骨頭也被挖出來，扔進(jìn)火堆，據(jù)說是為了防止異教徒在審判日復(fù)活。

In the 13th century burning became the legal execution of choice for heresy. Peter II of Aragon granted legal status to the penalty of burning of heretics, probably on the advice of theologians. Frederick II of Hohenstaufen vigorously promoted death by fire. Mid-13thcentury doges of Venice vowed solemnly in their oath of office to burn heretics. Established as the official execution method throughout Christendom, the Papal Statutes of 1231 demanded that death by fire be used universally. Even bones of long dead heretics were exhumed and consigned to the pyres, supposedly to prevent resurrection of the heretics on the day of judgment.

西班牙宗教裁判所

? ? ? ? ? 皈依基督教的猶太人和穆斯林被稱為新基督徒、改宗猶太人、馬拉諾（意為“豬”）或摩里斯科人，因此，他們受宗教裁判所的管轄。新基督徒受到民事限制和種族偏見，例如被指責(zé)為有“不潔的血液”。“老基督徒”懷疑他們是隱蔽的猶太社會攀附者，他們只是為了逃避猶太人的受壓迫狀況而皈依。教皇尼古拉五世（1447-55年）譴責(zé)了托萊多會議1449年禁止改宗猶太人擔(dān)任公職的詔書，但西班牙國王無視教皇的詔書。1460年至1469年間，教皇西斯篤四世主持了西班牙宗教裁判所，以結(jié)束“背道而馳”的改宗猶太人的猶太化習(xí)俗，他們被指控保留了猶太習(xí)俗，如禁止食用豬肉。與拒絕皈依基督教的猶太人一樣，作為“復(fù)發(fā)猶太人”的改宗猶太人也是被燒死在火刑柱上的頑固異端分子或失效異端分子。處決儀式是auto-da-fé（葡萄牙語，“信仰的行為”）。在做完彌撒和布道后，異教徒被移交給世俗當(dāng)局公開燒死，同時被綁在一根高高豎起的木柱上，木柱底部有火，被設(shè)計用來慢慢折磨身體，直到被燒死。

Jews and Muslims who converted to Christianity were called New Christians, conversos, marranos (meaning “swine”), or moriscos and, as such, were subject to the jurisdiction of the Inquisition. New Christians suffered civil restrictions and racial prejudice, exemplified by the denomination of having “impure blood.” “Old Christians” suspected them of being crypto-Jewish social climbers who had only converted in order to escape from the oppressed condition of the Jews. Pope Nicholas V (r. 1447–55) condemned the Council of Toledo’s edict of 1449 banning conversos from public office, but the Spanish kings ignored the papal bull. Between 1460 and 1469 Pope Sixtus IV presided over the Spanish Inquisition to put an end to the Judaizing practices of “backsliding” conversos who were accused of retaining Jewish customs such as the prohibition against consuming pork. Like the Jews who refused to convert to Christianity, conversos as “relapsing Jews” were among the obstinate heretics or lapsed heretics who were burned at the stake. The execution ceremony was the auto-da-fé (Portuguese, “act of faith”). After a mass and a sermon the heretic was transferred to secular authority for public burning while tied to an elevated upright wooden pillar with a fire built around its base, contrived to torture the body slowly until it was consumed.

? ? ? ? ? 異教徒戴著模仿主教高而帶有深裂紋的帽子的黃色帽檐，穿著San Benito——一種黃色或黑色的祭祀麻布衣，通常有怪異的裝飾。對異教徒的處決是一個公開的慶祝活動，通常在一個神圣的日子或一個被定為節(jié)日的日子舉行，以確保最大的公眾參與度并樹立榜樣。審訊的一個目的是通過恐怖儀式來進(jìn)行威懾，通過酷刑和焚燒，大量的基督教異端分子、猶太人和女巫被處決。Marranos（皈依基督教但仍是秘密猶太人）和moriscos（皈依基督教但仍是秘密穆斯林的摩爾人或穆斯林）在西班牙宗教裁判所期間也死得很慘。

The heretic wore a yellow miter imitating a bishop’s tall, deeply cleft hat and a san benito, a yellow or black ceremonial sackcloth garment, usually grotesquely decorated. Execution of a heretic was a public celebration customarily held on a holy day or a day made into a holiday to assure the greatest public participation and to set an example. An inquisitional purpose was deterrence by terror. By means of torture and auto-da-fé, large numbers of Christian heretics, Jews, and witches were exterminated. Marranos (Jews who had converted to Christianity but remained secret Jews) and moriscos (Moors or Muslims who had converted to Christianity but remained secret Muslims) also died horribly during the Spanish Inquisition.

《Handbook To Life in The Medieval World》（2008）

By Madeleine Pelner Cosman and Linda Gale Jones?

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