Food and drink in the Elizabethan era was remarkably diverse with much more meat and many more varieties of it being eaten by those who could afford it than is the case today. Storage of food was still a problem and so fresh produce was grown at home or regularly acquired at local markets. Thick sauces with strong flavours were popular and made even more varied as ingredients became more readily available from Asia. Pastries, cakes, and other sweet goodies of all kinds were greatly appreciated and often eaten between the savoury courses. A healthy distrust of water meant that ale and beer were the most popular drinks, with wine a welcome addition for the better off. While some commoners struggled, as ever, to feed their families, especially in the long winters of the 16th century CE, foreign visitors did often remark on how well-fed the Elizabethan peasantry was and how overfed the rich were compared to their continental neighbours.

? ? ? ? ? 伊麗莎白時代的飲食非常多樣化，與今天相比，那些負擔得起的人消費的肉類和其他食品種類要多得多。由于食物儲存一直是個問題，因此，新鮮的農產品都是自家生產的，或者定期從當?shù)厥袌鲑徺I。味道濃郁的醬汁很受歡迎，而且隨著原料從亞洲變得更加容易獲得，醬汁的種類也更加豐富。糕點、蛋糕和其他各種甜食供不應求，并經(jīng)常在葷素搭配的菜肴間食用。對水質的不信任意味著麥芽酒和啤酒是當時最受歡迎的飲品，而葡萄酒則是對富裕階層飲品的最佳補充。雖然部分平民一如既往地掙扎著養(yǎng)活自己的家人，特別是在公元16世紀的漫長冬季，但外國游客經(jīng)常評論說，伊麗莎白時代的農民吃得很好，與他們的大陸鄰居相比，富人吃得更豐盛。

烹飪和存儲

Most Elizabethan cooking was done at home but there were communal ovens in many parishes for people to take their prepared dough and have it baked into bread or to have a stew (pottage) slowly cooked. Those who could afford servants also had cooks, usually women but including men, too, at the great houses. Even the humblest of kitchens would have had such indispensable cooking and preparation aids as a large brass pot and iron pan, a spit for roasting over the fire, a milk pail and sundry containers, utensils and serving dishes for food made of wood, clay or pewter. Most cooking was done over an open fire of wood or charcoal with a large pot either stood on legs actually in the fire or suspended over it using chains. The main methods of cooking were boiling, roasting, and frying. The fourth method was baking and involved putting the dish inside a closed oven made of clay or brick much like a wood-burning pizza oven today.

? ? ? ? ? 大多數(shù)伊麗莎白時代的烹飪都是在家里完成的，但在許多教區(qū)都有公用烤爐，人們可以把準備好的面團拿去烤成面包，或者用小火煮燉菜（湯）。那些在大房子里能雇得起仆人的人也有廚師，通常是女人，也有男人。即使是最簡陋的廚房，也會有一些不可或缺的準備和烹飪工具，如大黃銅鍋和鐵鍋、用于在火上烘烤的烤肉叉、牛奶桶和各種容器、器皿以及用木頭、粘土或錫镴制成的餐具。大多數(shù)烹飪是在木頭或木炭的明火上進行的，大鍋直立在火中，或者用鐵鏈懸掛在火上。主要的烹調方法是煮、煎和炸。第四種方法是烘烤，就是把菜放在一個封閉的粘土或磚塊制成的烤爐里，就像今天的燃木比薩烤箱一樣。

Larger households stored food in giant meal chests which were airtight and used to keep such goods as grain and preserved meat and fish. In contrast, hutches ('pantries') were boxes with air-holes for keeping fresh food like cheeses. In households with a staff of servants, these chests were often kept locked to prevent unauthorised nibbling. The vast majority of the population still worked in agriculture and often had their own small plot of land for their own personal needs. Indeed, even artisans who specialised in such activities as weaving and making clothes still kept a patch of land for their vegetable garden and some poultry. Local markets supplied everything else but the larger estates would have been more self-sufficient producing their own bread, milk, cheese, meat, and fish on site.

? ? ? ? ? 人口較多的家庭會將食物儲存在巨大的餐箱中，這些餐箱是密閉的，用于保存谷物和腌制的肉類和魚類等物品。相比之下，hutches（'儲藏柜'）是帶有氣孔的箱子，用于儲存奶酪等新鮮食品。在有仆人的家庭中，這些箱子通常是鎖著的，以防止偷食。絕大多數(shù)人仍然從事農業(yè)工作，他們擁有自己的小塊土地以滿足自己的個人需求。事實上，即使是專門從事織布和制衣等活動的工匠，也仍然保留了一塊土地作為他們的菜園并養(yǎng)一些家禽。當?shù)厥袌鎏峁┴S富的食品，但一些大莊園可以自給自足，生產面包、牛奶、奶酪、肉和魚。

富人的膳食

The wealthy were much more likely to have the time to eat a sit-down breakfast. The meal was not particularly different from those later in the day and might include porridge, bread, cheese, fruit and meat. The poorer classes would have just grabbed any leftovers from the night before or a chunk of bread and butter and been off to start their working day. The two main meals for everyone remained around 11 am to 12 noon and again from 6 to 9 pm. Snacks of bread, cheese, and cold food washed down with a cup of ale would have been taken any time in-between.

? ? ? ? ? 富人更可能有充裕的時間坐下來美美地享用早餐。早餐與當天晚些時候的飯菜沒有特別的區(qū)別，可能包括粥、面包、奶酪、水果和肉。貧困階層的人們則只需吃完前一天晚上的剩飯或一大塊面包配上黃油就可以開始一天的工作了。每個人的兩頓正餐都是在上午11點到12點左右，以及下午6點到9點之間。其間，人們會吃一些面包、奶酪和冷食，用一杯麥酒打消時間。

A meal table was set with a large wooden plate (trencher) which had a hollowed-out centre for the food and sometimes a little dip in the corner for placing salt, a bowl for food, a bowl for waste, and a large-bowled spoon. The diners brought their own knives. Forks were not yet used in England but they were not needed as most food was already cut up before serving. There was a drinking cup which could be an ornate goblet, a simple glass beaker, a lidded tankard in pewter, a ceramic mug, or a 'black jack' - a leather mug stiffened with pitch. Hands were washed before starting the meal and napkins were often provided which women placed on their laps while men, curiously, draped over one shoulder.?

? ? ? ? ? 餐桌上通常會擺放一個大木盤（trencher），中間鏤空，用來盛放食物，有的在角落里有一個小凹槽，用來放鹽，一個碗用來盛放食物，一個碗用來盛放垃圾，還有一個大碗狀的勺子。食客們自己帶著刀具，當時的英國人還沒有廣泛使用叉子，但也不需要叉子，因為大多數(shù)食物在上桌前就已經(jīng)切好了。每個人都有一個酒杯，可以是華麗的高腳杯、簡單的玻璃杯、有蓋的錫制酒杯、陶瓷杯或“黑杰克”——用瀝青硬化的皮杯。在開始用餐之前要洗手，主人通常會提供餐巾，婦女把餐巾放在大腿上，而男人則奇怪地把餐巾披在左/右肩上。

Perhaps the greatest difference between the diets of the upper classes and the lower classes was the quantity of meat the former group ate. Meat was fresh or, when eaten in the winter months, was preserved via salting, smoking, drying, or pickling. The latter methods were a necessity because animals were often slaughtered before the onset of winter as feeding them in that season was difficult. Cured hams and sausages were another way to keep meat edible through the winter.

? ? ? ? ? 也許上層階級和下層階級飲食的最大區(qū)別在于前者的肉食量。肉要么是新鮮的，或者在冬季食用時，通過鹽漬、煙熏、干燥或腌制來保存。后一種方法是必要的，因為動物經(jīng)常在冬季來臨之前被宰殺，在冬季喂養(yǎng)它們是很困難的。腌制火腿和香腸是保持肉類在冬季仍可食用的好方法。

Meat dishes on offer for those who could afford it included beef, veal, pork, lamb, mutton, and poultry such as chicken, duck, goose and pigeon. Game meat included rabbit, venison, woodcock, and many other types of birds from pheasants to cranes. Game was often protected by forest laws with strict punishments for poachers. Not much of an animal was ever wasted as dishes were made using trotters, feet, and heads. Fish was also a common dish and eaten wholly in place of meat during Lent (Protestant Elizabethan England kept up the practice to support fishermen). Common fish included cod, mackerel, and herring, with more expensive fish being salmon, trout, and pike amongst many others. Other seafood included eels, crustaceans, and shellfish (especially mussels, crab, shrimp, and oysters). Seafood was cheap in villages and towns on the coast or near rivers but was a luxury only for the rich in inland areas.

? ? ? ? ? 提供給那些負擔得起的人的肉類包括牛肉、小牛肉、豬肉、羔羊肉、山羊肉和家禽，如雞、鴨、鵝和鴿子。野味包括兔肉、鹿肉、丘鷸，以及從野雞到鶴等許多其他可食用的鳥類。狩獵通常受到森林法的保護，偷獵者會受到嚴格的懲罰。人們也使用動物的蹄、腳和頭來制作菜肴，因此幾乎沒有浪費的部位。魚也是一道常見的菜肴，在四旬齋期間專門用來代替肉類（伊麗莎白時代的新教徒保持了這種做法以支持漁民）。常見的魚包括鱈魚、鯖魚和鯡魚，更昂貴的魚是鮭魚、鱒魚和梭魚等。其他海產品包括鰻魚、甲殼類和貝類（特別是貽貝、螃蟹、對蝦和牡蠣）。海鮮在沿?；蚩拷恿鞯拇彐?zhèn)很便宜，但對內陸地區(qū)的富人來說卻是一種奢侈品。

At special dinners, the guests could choose from a wide variety of meat dishes and even ask for a sample before making their decision. Flavours were added using spices, a handy extra that also hid the taste of salted or not quite top-grade meat. Flavours were added to sauces thickened with bread crumbs and included spices from the East Indies like pepper, cloves, cinnamon, and nutmeg, as well as ginger, hot peppers, saffron, garlic, and mustard, perhaps the most popular flavour of all for meat dishes, at least. Other commonly added flavours included salt, onions of all types, fennel, rocket, vinegar, olive oil, and such herbs as sage, parsley, thyme, and rosemary. Even flowers were tossed in to add their distinctive tastes and a splash of colour, for example, marigolds, violets, and primroses. Meat was frequently cooked in ale, almond milk, wine, and verjuice (the sour juice of crabapples). Stews using pieces of meat and fish were made with the above flavourings and spices added along with thickeners such as rice, barley, and oats.

? ? ? ? ? 在特別的慶祝晚宴上，客人們可以從種類繁多的肉類菜肴中進行選擇，甚至在做出決定之前可以適當嘗一嘗。適當?shù)厥褂孟懔峡梢栽黾痈囡L味，掩蓋太咸或品質較低的肉的味道。香料被添加到用面包屑勾芡的醬汁中，包括來自東印度群島的香料，如胡椒、丁香、肉桂和肉豆蔻，以及生姜、辣椒、藏紅花、大蒜和芥末，這也許是所有肉類菜肴中最受歡迎的味道。其他常用的調味品包括鹽、各種類型的洋蔥、茴香、芝麻菜、醋、橄欖油和香草，如鼠尾草、歐芹、百里香和迷迭香等。人們甚至會在食物中加一些花瓣，以增加其獨特的味道和淡淡的色彩，例如，金盞花、紫羅蘭和報春花。肉類常在麥芽酒、杏仁奶、葡萄酒和verjuice（海棠果的酸汁，verjuice還有酸葡萄汁的意思）中烹制。使用肉塊和魚塊的燉菜是用上述調味品和香料以及大米、大麥和燕麥等增稠劑制成的。

A 16th-century CE cookbook gives the following summary of a fairly typical meal for the wealthy:

? ? ?The First Course: Pottage or stewed broth; boiled meat or stewed meat, chickens and bacon, powdered [salted] beef, pies, goose, pig, roasted beef, roasted veal, custard.

? ? ?The Second Course: Roasted lamb, roasted capons, roasted conies [rabbit], chickens, peahens, baked venison, tart. (Singman, 132)

一本16世紀的烹飪書對富人的一頓相當?shù)湫偷娘埐俗隽巳缦驴偨Y：

? ? ? ? ? 第一道菜。燉肉或燉湯；水煮肉或燉肉、雞肉和熏肉、粉狀[鹽漬]牛肉、餡餅、鵝肉、豬肉、烤牛肉、烤小牛肉、奶油凍。

? ? ? ? ? 第二道菜。烤羊肉、烤鴨、烤兔肉、雞肉、孔雀肉、烤鹿肉、蛋撻。(Singman, 132)

As can readily be seen, meat was eaten so frequently and in such prodigious quantities amongst the rich that they frequently suffered complaints like kidney and bladder stones, as well as urinary infections. The rich ate so well and over so many courses that their servants at least benefitted from this bonanza as they got to eat the leftovers; anything still left over was then given to the poor.

? ? ? ? ? 可以看出，富人經(jīng)常大量食用肉類，經(jīng)?；加心I結石和膀胱結石以及尿路感染等問題。富人吃得很好，而且吃得很多，他們的仆人也可以從這種大餐中受益，因為他們可以吃到剩余的食物。剩余的菜肴會送給窮人。

Cheese was eaten at the end of the main courses, as were nuts, especially chestnuts, walnuts, and hazelnuts. Sweet dishes, as seen in the above menu, were not necessarily reserved for the final part of the meal but might be served between savoury courses. Desserts included fruit, honey, pastries rich in butter, puddings using stale bread, biscuits, gingerbread, and all manner of cakes, fruit pasties and tarts made using refined sugar (by now being grown in the Americas but still expensive). Sugar was also used to make marmalade, jams, fruit conserves, marzipan, and sweets.

? ? ? ? ? 奶酪是在主餐結束時吃的，堅果也是如此，特別是栗子、核桃和榛子。從上面的菜單中可以看出，甜食不一定是保留在用餐的最后部分，也可以在葷素菜肴交替上菜之間供應。當時的甜品包括水果、蜂蜜、富含黃油的糕點，用不新鮮的面包、餅干、姜餅制成的布丁，以及使用精制糖（雖然在美洲有很多甘蔗園，但精制糖的價格仍很昂貴）制作的各種蛋糕、水果餡餅和蛋撻。糖還被用來制作橘子醬、果醬、水果蜜餞、扁桃仁膏和糖果。

平民的膳食

Lunch was more important than dinner for commoners, and generally, all the food was served at the same time. Artisans and agricultural workers ate meat only on special occasions and instead they ate more bread, milk, cheese, and eggs. Bread was, however, another food item that depended on status as the best bread which used the finest, well-ground flour was more expensive. Consequently, the bread on a rich person's table was noticeably whiter than a loaf on a poor person's. The less well-off ate barley bread and rye bread which were very dark brown or almost black in colour. Bread was typically made into low round loaves of various sizes. For labourers, a packed lunch consisting of a chunk of bread, cheese, and large rigid pasties containing meat and/or vegetables would have seen them through their working day.

? ? ? ? ? 對平民來說，午餐比晚餐更重要，一般來說，所有的食物都在同一時間供應。工匠和農業(yè)工人只有在特殊場合才吃肉，相反，他們吃更多的面包、牛奶、奶酪和雞蛋。然而，面包是另一種取決于地位的食品，因為使用最好的、磨得很好的面粉的面包更加昂貴。因此，富人桌上的面包明顯比窮人桌上的面包要白。不太富裕的人吃的是大麥面包和黑麥面包，它們的顏色非常深，甚至幾乎是黑色。面包通常被做成各種尺寸的低圓面包。對于勞動者來說，由一大塊面包、奶酪和含有肉類或蔬菜的大塊硬質餡餅組成的午餐可以讓他們完成一天的工作。

A meat or vegetable stew was a common meal for everyone as it was easy to cook and could be left unattended. One could also throw in whatever ingredients one had to eat up or add something more expensive to make the dish a speciality. Here is a contemporary recipe with cooking tips:

? ? ?To make the best ordinary pottage, you shall take a rack of mutton cut into pieces, or a leg of mutton cut into pieces; for this meat and these joints are the best, although any other joint or any fresh beef will likewise make good pottage: and having washed your meat well, put it into a clean pot with fair water, and set it on the fire; then take violet leaves, endive, succory, strawberry leaves, spinach, langdebeef [oxtongue], marigold flowers, scallions and a little parsley, and chop them very small together; then take half so much oatmeal well beaten as there is herbs, and mix it with the herbs, and chop all very well together: then when the pot is ready to boil, scum it very well, and then put in your herbs, and so let it boil with a quick fire, stirring the meat oft in the pot till the meat be boiled enough, and then the herbs and water are mixed together without any separation, which will be after the consumption of more than a third part: then season them with salt, and serve them up with the meat either with snippets [thin slices of toasted or fried bread] or without. (Singman, 143)

? ? ? ? ? 燉肉或蔬菜對每個人來說都是常見的菜肴，因為它很容易烹飪，而且人們可以在烹調時短暫離開。人們也會把各種想吃的食材扔進鍋里，或者加入更昂貴的食材，使這道菜成為餐桌上的特色菜。下面是一個帶有烹飪技巧的仿古食譜：

? ? ? ? ? 要做最好的普通燉肉，你應該把羊排切成塊，或者把羊腿切成塊；因為這種肉和骨頭適合做燉菜，盡管其他骨頭或新鮮牛肉也能做成較好的燉肉。把肉洗干凈后，放在一個干凈的鍋里，加入適量的清水，放在火上；然后取紫羅蘭葉、苣荬菜、肉桂、草莓葉、菠菜葉、苦參葉、金盞花、大蔥和少許歐芹，把它們切碎；然后取一半打好的燕麥片，與這些香草混合。當湯沸騰時時，用勺舀起湯的浮沫，然后將混合好的香草與燕麥下鍋，用快火煮沸，但要不停地攪拌湯，直到肉煮熟，最后用鹽調味，與肉一起食用，可以用面片[烤過的或炸過的面包薄片]蘸（包）著吃，也可以不用。(Singman, 143)

England was self-sufficient in terms of agricultural produce, although the run of bad harvests in the 1590s CE did necessitate the import of grain and prices tripled. Eggs were a favourite with everybody and added to a large number of dishes, as was lard which at least solved the problem of where to find protein and calories. The most commonly eaten vegetables were peas, beans, and lentils. Other common vegetables included spinach, artichokes, asparagus, carrots, and lettuce. In the 1580s CE, the potato had been introduced to England from the New World by Sir Walter Raleigh (c. 1552-1618 CE), but it remained an expensive delicacy and was yet to realise its full potential. Commonly cultivated fruits included apples, pears, grapes, plums, apricots, figs, strawberries, raspberries, and mulberries. For the rich, oranges, lemons, capers, and olives were imported from mainland Europe. As the Elizabethan period witnessed the so-called Little Ice Age, the winter season was markedly longer than in other eras greatly increasing the risk of scurvy as vitamin-rich fresh food became scarce. Consequently, whatever the season offered in terms of wild vegetables and fruits were well-received by everyone.

? ? ? ? ? 英國在農產品方面是自給自足的，盡管16世紀90年代的一系列歉收導致糧食進口和價格上漲了兩倍。雞蛋很受大家喜愛，它可以搭配到很多菜肴中，豬油也是如此，這至少解決了蛋白質和熱量攝取問題。消費最多的蔬菜是豌豆、豆子和小扁豆。其他常見的蔬菜有菠菜、朝鮮薊、蘆筍、胡蘿卜和生菜。在16世紀80年代，馬鈴薯由沃爾特·羅利爵士（約 1552-1618 年）從新大陸引入英國，但它仍然是一種昂貴的商品，尚未充分發(fā)揮其潛力。當時普遍種植的水果有蘋果、梨、葡萄、李子、杏子、無花果、草莓、覆盆子和桑葚。對于英國富人來說，橙子、檸檬、刺山柑和橄欖都是從歐洲大陸進口的。由于伊麗莎白時代經(jīng)歷了所謂的小冰河時期，冬季明顯比其他時代長，這大大增加了人們患壞血病的風險，因為富含維生素的新鮮食物變得稀缺。因此，無論什么季節(jié)，野菜和水果都受到大家的歡迎。

飲? ? ?品

Drinking water was avoided by most people as it was rarely ever clean and tasteless. Elizabethans were aware that water harboured disease (typhoid, cholera, and dysentery) and for this reason drank beer or ale made from malted barley, water, and added spices. Beer from hops was the cheapest drink because, having a higher alcohol content, it could be stored longer than any of the others; although finer beers were aged for up to two years before drinking. Ale was so light in alcohol it was drunk even by children but it could be strengthened, sometimes by as much as four times the norm, and this heady brew became known by various nicknames like 'Dragon's Milk' and 'Mad Dog'.

? ? ? ? ? 大多數(shù)人都避免喝水，因為水很少是干凈無味的。伊麗莎白時代的人意識到水會帶來疾病（傷寒、霍亂和痢疾），因此他們經(jīng)常飲用由大麥、水和添加的香料制成的啤酒或麥芽酒。用啤酒花釀制的啤酒是最便宜的飲料，因為它的酒精含量較高，可以比其他飲品儲存得更久；優(yōu)質啤酒在飲用前要陳釀兩年的時間。麥芽酒的酒精含量很低，甚至連兒童都可以喝，但它可以被加工，有時甚至是標準的四倍，這種令人陶醉的啤酒有各種綽號，如“龍奶”和“瘋狗”。

Wine, both plain and fortified, was also drunk, but as this was imported from Continental Europe and was exposed to import duties, it was not cheap. A bottle of wine cost around 12 times as much as a bottle of ale. France was the main source and came in two broad groups: from northern France and called simply 'French' wine and from the Bordeaux region when it was called 'Gascon' wine or claret. Other wines came from the Rhine area, Italy, and Greece. Three fortified sweet wines were popular: 'sack' from Jerez (which later became known as sherry), 'Madeira' from the Madeira Islands and 'Canary' from the Canary Islands. Other popular alcoholic drinks included cider, mead (honey wine), perry (from fermented pears), and 'raspie' made from raspberries. Just about any seasonal fruits - from gooseberries to elderberries - were used to make wines, although the quality must have been generally low and the taste an acquired one. Finally, spirits were made from distilled wine such as aqua vitae but these were largely used as a medicine, as was spiced wine.

? ? ? ? 人們也喝葡萄酒，包括普通葡萄酒和強化葡萄酒，但這些葡萄酒是從歐洲大陸進口的，需要繳納進口稅，所以價格并不便宜。一瓶葡萄酒的價格大約是一瓶麥芽酒的12倍。法國是葡萄酒的主要來源地，分為兩大類：來自法國北部的葡萄酒，被簡單地稱為 “法國”葡萄酒；來自波爾多地區(qū)的葡萄酒被稱為“加斯科”葡萄酒或紅葡萄酒。還有一些葡萄酒來自萊茵河地區(qū)、意大利和希臘。有三種強化甜酒很受歡迎：來自赫雷斯的“sack”（后來被稱為雪利酒），來自馬德拉群島的“Madeira”和來自加那利群島的“Canary”。其他流行的酒精飲料包括蘋果酒、蜂蜜酒、梨酒（來自發(fā)酵的梨子）和用覆盆子制成的“raspie”。幾乎所有的季節(jié)性水果——從醋栗到接骨木漿果——都被用來釀酒，盡管質量普遍較低，味道也是后天形成的。最后，人們用蒸餾的葡萄酒制成烈性酒，如生命之水（aqua vitae，阿夸維特），但這些烈性酒和香料酒一樣，主要是作為藥物使用。

If not drunk at home, alcoholic drinks were readily available at inns (which also served food), taverns (which did not usually serve food and whose clientele preferred wine), alehouses, and basic food-serving places known as 'ordinaries'. Both men and women attended all of these establishments. Another source was church ales, which were regularly organised by parish churches to raise funds for the upkeep of the church and to help the poor in the parish. Some church ales spanned across several days and two or three might be held annually. Food was available and entertainment such as players, wrestling and Morris dancing was provided but it was the attraction of the ale and the tendency for attendees to get a little carried away that so upset the Puritans towards the end of Elizabeth's reign.

? ? ? ? ? 如果不在家里喝，在旅館（也提供食物）、酒館（通常不提供食物，其顧客更喜歡喝葡萄酒）、啤酒屋和被稱為普通餐廳的基本食物供應場所可以隨時買到酒精飲料。男人和女人都會進入這些場所。另一個來源是教區(qū)盛宴，由教會定期提供，以籌集資金用于維護教堂并幫助教區(qū)的窮人。有些教堂酒會持續(xù)數(shù)天，每年可能會舉辦兩到三次。教堂還提供食物和娛樂活動，如演奏者、摔跤和莫里斯舞，但正是由于麥芽酒的吸引力和參加者有點忘乎所以的傾向，在伊麗莎白統(tǒng)治末期，清教徒們對此非常惱火。

參考書目：

Guy, John. Tudor England. Oxford University Press, 1988.

Miller, John. Early Modern Britain, 1450-1750. Cambridge University Press, 2017.

Morrill, John. The Oxford Illustrated History of Tudor & Stuart Britain. Oxford University Press, 1996.

Singman, Jeffrey, L. Daily Life in Elizabethan England. Greenwood, 1995.

Wagner, John A. Historical Dictionary of the Elizabethan World. Greenwood, 1999.

原文作者：Mark Cartwright

????????? 駐意大利的歷史作家。他的主要興趣包括陶瓷、建筑、世界神話和發(fā)現(xiàn)所有文明的共同思想。他擁有政治哲學碩士學位，是《世界歷史百科全書》的出版總監(jiān)。

原文網(wǎng)址：https://www.worldhistory.org/article/1578/food--drink-in-the-elizabethan-era/