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2 SOCIETY

? ? ? ? ? 盡管宗教上存在差異，但在中世紀(jì)時(shí)期的基督教、猶太教和伊斯蘭教，社會(huì)的基本輪廓具有顯著的相似性。這三個(gè)亞伯拉罕宗教都認(rèn)為人類社會(huì)應(yīng)該遵循神的旨意來(lái)發(fā)展。宗教人士（神職人員、拉比和烏里瑪）被置于各自社會(huì)秩序的頂端，盡管在伊斯蘭教，尤其是基督教，宗教領(lǐng)袖在對(duì)世俗統(tǒng)治者施加影響時(shí)可能會(huì)遇到困難。管理基督教徒、猶太人和穆斯林社會(huì)生活的法律、制度和世界觀，同樣也是以宗教和道德價(jià)值觀為絕大多數(shù)條件的。宗教和道德決定了規(guī)范家庭和社區(qū)生活、社會(huì)地位、商業(yè)和工作關(guān)系、適當(dāng)教育、飲食法、合法和非法的休閑方式、犯罪、懲罰和法治——總之，涵蓋了這三個(gè)宗教社區(qū)社會(huì)生活的所有參數(shù)。

For all their religious differences, remarkable similarities characterize the basic contours of society during the Christian, Jewish, and Islamic medieval period. All three Abrahamic faiths shared the belief that human society should be ordered according to the divine will. Religious personnel—clergy, rabbis, and ulema—were positioned at the apex of the social order of their respective societies, although in the Muslim and especially the Christian case, religious leaders might encounter difficulty in exerting their influence over secular rulers. The laws, institutions, and worldview that governed social life of Christians, Jews, and Muslims alike were likewise overwhelmingly conditioned by religious and moral values. Religion and ethics dictated the norms regulating family and communal life, social status, business and work relations, a proper education, dietary laws, licit and illicit forms of leisure, crime, punishment, and the rule of law—in short, all the parameters of the social life of all three religious communities.

? ? ? ? ? 然而，這些重要的相似之處不能讓我們忽視基督教、猶太教和穆斯林社會(huì)的重要差異。在11世紀(jì)亨利五世皇帝和教皇格列高利七世（額我略七世）之間的“敘任權(quán)斗爭(zhēng)”中，精神與世俗權(quán)力之間的政治二元論達(dá)到了高潮，這在猶太社會(huì)和穆斯林社會(huì)中都是不存在的，因?yàn)樵谀抢?，宗教和世俗之間的政治分離概念本身并不存在。同樣，封建主義和莊園主義只在基督教國(guó)家出現(xiàn)過(guò)，這是因?yàn)槠漕I(lǐng)土和社會(huì)組織以及繼承法的特殊性。

Such significant similarities must not blind us, however, to important differences in the Christian, Jewish, and Muslim societies. The political dualism that confronted the spiritual and temporal powers that would reach its climax in the Investiture Controversy of the 11th century between Emperor Henry V and Pope Gregory VII had no parallel in either Jewish or Muslim society, where the very concept of a political separation between the sacred and the profane did not exist. In the same vein, feudalism and manoralism emerged only in Christendom owing to the particularities of its territorial and social organization and inheritance laws.

? ? ? ? ? 將中世紀(jì)的基督徒、猶太人和穆斯林分開(kāi)的理論和理想化的社會(huì)差異不得不根據(jù)現(xiàn)實(shí)生活中的共存與互動(dòng)進(jìn)行重新考量。散居以東土地上的猶太人的存在，意味著占主導(dǎo)地位的基督教和穆斯林社會(huì)必須建立相應(yīng)機(jī)構(gòu)來(lái)容納其猶太少數(shù)民族。猶太人關(guān)于理想社會(huì)的概念總是不得不與基督教或穆斯林統(tǒng)治下不斷變化的現(xiàn)實(shí)相抗衡，生活在穆斯林統(tǒng)治下的基督教少數(shù)群體也是如此。事實(shí)上，當(dāng)政治潮流開(kāi)始對(duì)穆斯林不利時(shí)，伊斯蘭教處理宗教少數(shù)群體的策略會(huì)影響基督教的立法，而穆斯林會(huì)發(fā)現(xiàn)自己受到基督教的統(tǒng)治。

Theoretical and idealized social differences separating medieval Christians, Jews, and Muslims constantly had to be renegotiated in light of real-life coexistence and interaction. The existence of a Jewish Diaspora dispersed between the lands of Esau and Edom meant that the dominant Christian and Muslim societies had to create institutions to accommodate their Jewish minorities. Jewish notions of the ideal society always had to contend with the changing realities of subjugation to Christian or Muslim rule, and the same may be said of Christian minorities living under Muslim rule. Indeed, Islamic strategies for dealing with religious minorities would influence Christian legislation when the political tide began to turn against the Muslims, who would find themselves subjected to Christian rule.

? ? ? ? ? 中世紀(jì)世界的基督徒、猶太人和穆斯林之間的社會(huì)關(guān)系有許多不同的形式，而且往往是相互矛盾的，從為君主提供外交與財(cái)政服務(wù)的崇高特權(quán)世界到犯罪與賣淫的骯臟的黑社會(huì)。對(duì)知識(shí)的探求和對(duì)人類理性的共同推崇將穆斯林、猶太人和基督徒吸引到學(xué)術(shù)性的大學(xué)和圖書(shū)館中。通婚、宗教皈依、公民節(jié)日、商業(yè)交易和奴隸制是人類互動(dòng)的其他社會(huì)舞臺(tái)。毗鄰而居的社區(qū)之間爆發(fā)的社會(huì)暴力，有時(shí)是由宗教差異引起的，但更多的時(shí)候可能是由經(jīng)濟(jì)和政治競(jìng)爭(zhēng)引起的。在下文中，重點(diǎn)將放在強(qiáng)調(diào)基督教、猶太教和伊斯蘭教社會(huì)的獨(dú)特特征上，同時(shí)也不忽視煽動(dòng)社會(huì)互動(dòng)的環(huán)境。為了防止重復(fù)，猶太人作為宗教少數(shù)群體的情況將在專門討論猶太社會(huì)的章節(jié)中詳細(xì)論述。

Social relations among Christians, Jews, and Muslims in the medieval world took many different and often contradictory forms, from the lofty privileged world of diplomatic and fiscal service to the sovereign to the tawdry underworld of crime and prostitution. The search for knowledge and the shared exalting of human reason drew Muslims, Jews, and Christians together at scholarly universities and libraries. Intermarriage, religious conversion, civic festivals, business transactions, and slavery were among the other social arenas where human interactions took place. The social violence that erupted among communities living side by side sometimes was fueled by religious difference but perhaps more often by economic and political competition. In what follows the emphasis shall be placed on highlighting the distinct characteristics of Christian, Jewish, and Muslim society, while not ignoring the circumstances that fomented social interaction. In order to prevent redundancy, the situation of the Jews as a religious minority will be treated in detail in the section devoted to Jewish society.

基 督 教 社 會(huì)

二元性和等級(jí)制度

? ? ? ? ? 封建制度、城市、法人團(tuán)體和大學(xué)在中世紀(jì)不斷發(fā)展。二元性和等級(jí)制度是中世紀(jì)基督教世界的特點(diǎn)之一。一個(gè)男人、女人或孩子要么生活在城鎮(zhèn)和鄉(xiāng)村的世俗世界，要么生活在教堂和修道院的宗教世界，但這兩個(gè)世界經(jīng)常發(fā)生交集。宗教世界的藝術(shù)、文學(xué)、科學(xué)和哲學(xué)都宣稱自己比世俗世界優(yōu)越。講臺(tái)上的布道者勸說(shuō)基督徒遵守耶穌基督的命令，把屬于基督的東西交給世俗的基督，把屬于上帝的東西交給上帝。教會(huì)演說(shuō)家聲稱，強(qiáng)大的上帝之城，即教會(huì)的精神生活，正如圣奧古斯丁的精彩著作《上帝之城》中所說(shuō)的那樣，在人們的城市中，它的地位高于微不足道的世俗爭(zhēng)斗。

Feudalism, the city, the corporation, and the university evolved in the Middle Ages. Duality and hierarchy characterized this medieval Christian world. An individual man, woman, or child lived either in the secular world of the town and country or in the sacred world of the church and monastery. But the two worlds frequently intersected. Art, literature, science, and philosophy of the sacred world proclaimed its superiority to the secular. Pulpit sermons exhorted Christians to obey Jesus Christ’s command to render to worldly Caesar the things that were Caesar’s and to God those that were God’s. Church orators claimed that the powerful City of God, the church’s spiritual life, as in Saint Augustine’s wonderful book The City of God, had supremacy over paltry earthly strivings in the city of people.

? ? ? ? ? ?然而，世俗世界的藝術(shù)、文學(xué)、科學(xué)和哲學(xué)都渴望超越基督教的經(jīng)文和信仰，通過(guò)理性上升到模仿上帝的卓越和贊美上帝按其形象創(chuàng)造人類的創(chuàng)造力。1000年，飛行家馬姆斯伯里的埃爾默（Eilmer）在胳膊和腿上綁著翅膀，在飛行中滑行，13世紀(jì)商業(yè)革命中的企業(yè)家和國(guó)際貿(mào)易商也有類似的意圖。他們把思想與身體結(jié)合起來(lái)，超越了地球上的其他人，然后回到了普通人的生活中。通過(guò)發(fā)揮人類的潛力，通過(guò)敢于超越傳統(tǒng)的限制，男人和女人贊美上帝為他們提供了天賦和自由意志。

Yet art, literature, science, and philosophy of the secular world aspired beyond Christian Scripture and faith to ascend through reason to a creativity that imitated God’s excellence and celebrated God’s creation of humankind in his image. The aviator monk Eilmer, who, with wings strapped to his arms and legs, glided in flight in the year 1000, and the entrepreneurial merchants and international traders of the 13th-century commercial revolution had similar intentions. They integrated mind with body to soar beyond others on Earth and then returned to commonplace humanity. By fulfilling human potential and by daring beyond customary limitations, men and women praised God for providing them talent and free will.

? ? ? ? ? 在世俗和精神領(lǐng)域，上帝的作為在東西方大分裂中進(jìn)一步分裂，拉丁教（即西方羅馬天主教）和希臘教（即東方正教）在11世紀(jì)正式分離。教會(huì)生活的動(dòng)蕩影響了城市和鄉(xiāng)村人們的生活。隨后，羅馬天主教會(huì)內(nèi)部的摩擦導(dǎo)致了哲學(xué)上的分歧和教皇的雙重身份。當(dāng)1378年的紅衣主教會(huì)議未能就選舉教皇達(dá)成一致時(shí)，他們反而選出了兩位教皇，一位在阿維尼翁統(tǒng)治，另一位在羅馬統(tǒng)治。在這種被稱為“教皇權(quán)在巴比倫的囚禁”的難以忍受的情況下，每個(gè)教皇都要求繳納稅款，并發(fā)布必須遵守的詔書(shū)。雙重教皇制在1409年變成了三重教皇制，然后在1414年降為教皇統(tǒng)一制，教會(huì)秩序得以恢復(fù)。

In both the temporal and spiritual realms, God’s works were further divided in the Great Schism of East and West between the Latin, or Western Roman Catholic, Church, and the Greek, or Eastern Orthodox, Church, which separated formally in the 11th century. Turmoil in the life of the church affected people’s lives in the city and in the country. Then friction within the Roman Catholic Church led to philosophical divisions and papal dualities. When a 1378 conclave of cardinals failed to agree on electing a pope, they elected instead two popes, one reigning at Avignon, the other at Rome. In this intolerable circumstance called the Babylonian Captivity each pope demanded taxes to be paid and issued edicts to be obeyed. A dual papacy became a triple papacy in 1409 before it was reduced to papal unity in 1414 and ecclesiastical order was restored.

? ? ? ? ? 城市與農(nóng)村的問(wèn)題是中世紀(jì)社會(huì)生活另一重要的二元性。其他平行的二元性是社會(huì)秩序的特征，它們有各自不同的效忠對(duì)象、特權(quán)和責(zé)任，包括法人與非法人商業(yè)，大學(xué)學(xué)術(shù)主義與經(jīng)驗(yàn)主義的實(shí)用性，國(guó)王的政治體與國(guó)王的自然體，以及回廊中神職人員的公共生活與城鎮(zhèn)住宅中商人的個(gè)人主義及創(chuàng)業(yè)生活。

Urban versus rural concerns were another important duality of medieval social life. Other parallel dualities characterizing the social order that had their distinct sets of allegiances, privileges, and accountabilities were corporate versus unincorporated commerce, university Scholasticism versus empirical practicality, kingly body politic versus kingly human physique, and communal life of the clergy in the cloister versus individualistic, entrepreneurial life of the merchant in the townhouse.

? ? ? ? ? 每個(gè)二元社會(huì)世界都是有等級(jí)的，每個(gè)人都堅(jiān)定地站在社會(huì)階梯的某一階層。每一等級(jí)都有其權(quán)力、權(quán)利、責(zé)任和要求，并與上一級(jí)和下一級(jí)相互關(guān)聯(lián)。一個(gè)人可以在社會(huì)等級(jí)中上升或下降。正如被創(chuàng)造的宇宙被描述為一個(gè)巨大的存在鏈一樣，世俗領(lǐng)域也被理解為一個(gè)巨大的政治存在鏈，頂端是國(guó)王或皇帝，然后是由首席佃戶、附庸、封臣、騎士、鄉(xiāng)紳、仆人和其他多個(gè)環(huán)節(jié)組成的下降的封建秩序，最后到達(dá)耕種土地的農(nóng)奴。層次分明的相互依存關(guān)系也是工匠行會(huì)的特點(diǎn)。處于頂峰的貿(mào)易大師在經(jīng)過(guò)適當(dāng)?shù)呐嘤?xùn)后雇傭了一個(gè)工匠，他從學(xué)徒教育和服務(wù)中一路走來(lái)。

Each dual social world was hierarchical. Every individual stood firmly on a rung of a social ladder. Each hieratic rank had its powers, rights, responsibilities, and requirements interrelated with the level above and the one below. One might ascend or descend in social rank. Just as the created universe was described as a great chain of being, so the secular realm was construed as a great political chain of being with the king or the emperor at the top and then descending feudal orders of chief tenant, vassals, vavasours, knights, squires, servants, and multiple other links before reaching down to serfs who worked the land. Hierarchic interdependencies also characterized craftsmen’s guilds. The trade master at the pinnacle hired after suitable training a journeyman, who worked his way up from the education and service of an apprentice.

? ? ? ? ? 與世俗等級(jí)制度相類似的是教會(huì)等級(jí)，從教皇在主要圣職的最高層（由教皇英諾森三世（1198-1216）正式編纂）到主教、牧師、執(zhí)事和副執(zhí)事，都被認(rèn)為比次要圣職（搬運(yùn)工、傳教士、驅(qū)魔人和圣徒）的權(quán)力高。

Comparable to secular hierarchies were ecclesiastical rankings ranging down from the pope at the top of the Major Orders, formally codified by Pope Innocent III (1198–1216), through bishops, priests, deacons, and subdeacons, all considered superior in authority to members of the Minor Orders, the porters, lectors, exorcists, and acolytes.

? ? ? ? ? 大多數(shù)等級(jí)關(guān)系是通過(guò)書(shū)面或暗示的自愿協(xié)議建立的。封建和學(xué)徒關(guān)系通常有書(shū)面協(xié)議。每個(gè)協(xié)議簽署者都承諾以價(jià)值交換價(jià)值，而且義務(wù)是相互的、對(duì)等的。土地和商業(yè)協(xié)議中的權(quán)利和責(zé)任可以在有管轄權(quán)的法院強(qiáng)制執(zhí)行。任何一個(gè)結(jié)婚、離婚、買房、租房、為公司工作、買賣股票、住在農(nóng)場(chǎng)、住在城市或簽署協(xié)議的美國(guó)人，都在宗教圣禮、私有財(cái)產(chǎn)法、封建制度、房地產(chǎn)法、公司、大學(xué)和城市組織中遇到過(guò)與中世紀(jì)社會(huì)的二元性和等級(jí)制度相似的顯著持久模式。這些社會(huì)機(jī)構(gòu)的基本結(jié)構(gòu)和術(shù)語(yǔ)從12世紀(jì)之前一直延續(xù)至今。

Most hierarchical relationships were created by written or implied voluntary contracts. Feudal and apprenticeship relationships usually had written contracts. Each contract signer pledged to exchange value for value, and obligations were mutual and reciprocal. Rights and responsibilities in land and business contracts could be enforced in a court of law with competent jurisdiction. Any American who has married, divorced, bought a house, rented an apartment, worked for a corporation, traded stock, lived on a farm, lived in a city, or signed a contract has encountered the remarkably durable patterns of medieval society’s dualities and hierarchies in religious sacraments, private property law, feudalism, real estate law, corporations, universities, and urban organizations. Fundamental structures and terminology of all these social institutions have endured from before the 12th century to today.

存在鎖鏈（GREAT CHAIN OF BEING）

? ? ? ? ? 存在鎖鏈?zhǔn)鞘澜缰刃蛑兴性叵嗷リP(guān)聯(lián)的公式化表達(dá)。正如狄?jiàn)W尼修斯所描述的天體等級(jí)制度，上帝被置于大鏈條的頂端，后面是由九位天使組成的三個(gè)唱詩(shī)班，包括撒拉弗（天使之首熾天使）、智天使和座天使；然后是宰制天使、美德天使和權(quán)力天使；接著是公國(guó)天使、大天使和天使。與上面的天使和下面的動(dòng)物相連，男人和女人占據(jù)了這個(gè)鏈條的中間環(huán)節(jié)。在人類下面是各種類型的野獸，然后是樹(shù)木和植物的階層，最后是巖石和石頭的底層環(huán)節(jié)。每一個(gè)環(huán)節(jié)都與上面和下面的環(huán)節(jié)緊密聯(lián)系在一起。利用理性和靈魂的歡愉，人類有能力上升到天使的水平。男人和女人也有動(dòng)物傾向，在沉溺于肉體的快樂(lè)中向野獸墮落。這種世界秩序，即Ordo mundi，展示了上帝對(duì)宇宙中完美序列的神圣計(jì)劃，即奇異的相互聯(lián)系的創(chuàng)造?？偟拇笥钪媸菗碛兴膫€(gè)元素和四個(gè)對(duì)立面的宏觀世界，在人身上和諧地還原，小宇宙是微觀世界，由四種體液組成。

The great chain of being was the formulaic expression of the interrelatedness of all elements in the world order. God was positioned at the top of the great chain followed by three choirs of nine angels, as Dionysius described their celestial hierarchy, with seraphim, cherubim, and thrones; then dominations, virtues, and powers; followed by principalities, archangels, and angels. Linked to angels above and to animals below, man and woman occupied the middle links of the chain. Beneath humankind were various classes of beasts, then strata of trees and plants, and finally the bottom links of rocks and stones. Each link was tightly interconnected to the ones above and below. Human beings had the ability to ascend to the level of angels, using reason and rejoicing in the soul. Men and women also had human tendencies to descend toward beasts in indulging carnal pleasures. This order of the world, ordo mundi, demonstrated God’s divine plan for a perfect sequence in the universe, the singular interconnected creation. The total grand cosmos was the macrocosm possessing four elements and four contraries harmoniously reduced in the human being, the universe in small, the microcosm, composed of the four humors.

? ? ? ? ? 人類的生命被看作是由七個(gè)年齡段組成的，七個(gè)相互關(guān)聯(lián)的階段，從嬰兒期開(kāi)始，經(jīng)過(guò)青年期、少年期、壯年期，到老年期、晚年和死亡。生命太短暫了，不能在童年時(shí)期花費(fèi)太長(zhǎng)時(shí)間。騎士在13歲時(shí)就被稱為并被賦予戰(zhàn)斗力，這也是很多盔甲在現(xiàn)代人眼中顯得如此渺小的原因之一。孩子們很早就被派到工匠那里做學(xué)徒，通常在12歲就可以工作了。有些人活得很長(zhǎng)，阿基坦的埃莉諾女王活到了83歲。然而，在沒(méi)有抗生素和抗菌劑的情況下，感染是與毒藥或子彈一樣嚴(yán)重的威脅。在11-15世紀(jì)的西歐，一個(gè)中世紀(jì)的男人或女人平均能活到33歲左右。

Human life was seen as a set of seven ages, seven interlinked phases beginning in infancy, progressing through youth, adolescence, and prime, to elder age, dotage, and death. Life was too short to spend long in childhood. Knights were dubbed and empowered to fight at age 13, one reason so much armor seems so small to modern eyes. Children were apprenticed early to craftsmen and usually were ready for work at age 12. Some people lived long lives. Queen Eleanore of Aquitaine lived to age 83. However, infections in the absence of antibiotics and antimicrobials were as serious weapons as poisons or bullets. An average medieval man or woman in 11th- to 15th-century western Europe lived to approximately age 33.

? ? ? ? ? 鑒于平均壽命較短，在青春期前結(jié)婚是例行公事，而且童婚很常見(jiàn)。童婚是為了王朝、政治和經(jīng)濟(jì)目的而將年輕人結(jié)合起來(lái)。父母為他們的孩子訂婚，并早早地安排他們結(jié)婚，這往往在青春期之前。在12世紀(jì)，一個(gè)男嬰新郎死了，把他10歲的寡婦留給了她的母親監(jiān)護(hù)，她控制著女兒在婚姻中繼承的土地。這位母親還控制著她10歲的已婚兒子和他的妻子的土地，而這位女繼承人在5歲時(shí)就擁有一個(gè)巨大的英國(guó)莊園。

Given the shortness of the average life span, marriage by the time of puberty was routine, and child marriage was common. Child marriage was the uniting of youngsters for dynastic, political, and economic purposes. Parents betrothed their children and wed them early, often before puberty. In the 12th century a baby boy groom died and left his 10-year-old widow in the custody of her mother, who controlled her daughter’s lands inherited in marriage. This mother also controlled those of her 10-year-old married son and his wife, an heiress who owned a huge English manor by age five.

封建制度

? ? ? ? ? 封建制度是界定中世紀(jì)社會(huì)的四個(gè)主要現(xiàn)象之一，其他三個(gè)是大學(xué)、公司和城市。土地是一種寶貴但有限的資產(chǎn)，特別是當(dāng)它位置很好時(shí)，昂貴的羊群在上面吃草，重要的農(nóng)作物在上面收獲，珍貴的礦物在下面被開(kāi)采出來(lái)。土地為食物、衣服和住所提供必要的生存產(chǎn)品，為國(guó)內(nèi)貿(mào)易和出口提供有價(jià)值的作物。保有制（盎格魯-諾曼語(yǔ)，“持有”）是征服者威廉國(guó)王（1066-87年）在1066年后在英格蘭建立的土地所有權(quán)制度，以償還追隨者過(guò)去的軍事服務(wù)，并使他們承擔(dān)未來(lái)的義務(wù)、物資和服務(wù)。威廉國(guó)王通過(guò)贈(zèng)與土地購(gòu)買了主要貴族的忠誠(chéng)，以提供政治支持和戰(zhàn)斗人員。貴族們保護(hù)他們的附庸，這些附庸從他們的霸主那里獲得土地，以換取效忠和敬意。在附庸之下是封臣（拉丁語(yǔ)，vassi vassorum，“附庸的附庸”），一種緊隨男爵之下的封建佃戶。每個(gè)封建階級(jí)都通過(guò)特權(quán)、責(zé)任、忠誠(chéng)和依附關(guān)系聯(lián)系在一起，形成政治之鏈和等級(jí)森嚴(yán)的世界秩序，即被基督教會(huì)神圣化的世界秩序。

Feudalism was one of four major phenomena that defined medieval society; the other three were the university, the corporation, and the city. Land was a valuable though limited asset, especially when it was well located, expensive sheep grazed it, important crops were harvested from it, and precious minerals were mined from beneath it. Land produced necessary subsistence products for food, clothing, and shelter and valuable crops for domestic trade and for exports. Tenure (Anglo-Norman, “to hold”) was the landholding system that King William the Conqueror (r. 1066–87) established in England after the year 1066 to pay off followers for their past military service and to obligate them to future duties, goods, and services. With land grants King William purchased the loyalty of chief nobles to provide political support and fighting men. The nobility protected their vassals, who held land from their overlord in return for allegiance and homage. Beneath the vassal was a vavasour (Latin, vassi vassorum, “vassal of vassals”), a feudal tenant who ranked immediately below a baron. Each feudal class was linked to each by privileges, by responsibilities, by loyalty, and by dependency, creating the political great chain of being and hieratic world order, the ordo mundi, sanctified by the Christian Church.

? ? ? ? ? 封建制度是從兩個(gè)主要傳統(tǒng)中發(fā)展起來(lái)的。正如羅馬歷史學(xué)家普布利烏斯·科爾奈利烏斯·塔西佗（Gaius Cornelius Tacitus，約56-117年）在其關(guān)于日耳曼部落的論文《日耳曼尼亞》中所描述的那樣，被稱為comitatus的日耳曼戰(zhàn)隊(duì)是由一群戰(zhàn)士組成的，他們彼此之間以及對(duì)其領(lǐng)袖有相互的義務(wù)和特權(quán)。這是騎士和領(lǐng)主之間的義務(wù)交換的一個(gè)起源。封建制度的力量同樣來(lái)自于羅馬的土地使用權(quán)。

Feudalism developed from two major traditions. As the Roman historian Gaius Cornelius Tacitus (c. 56–c. 117) described it in his treatise on the German tribes, Germania, the Germanic war band called the comitatus was a group of warriors joined by mutual obligations and privileges to one another and to their leader. This was one origin of the exchange of obligations between knights and overlords. Feudalism equally derived its power from Roman land tenure.

? ? ? ? ? 封建金字塔形象地代表了封建制度在土地所有者、國(guó)王和國(guó)家之間錯(cuò)綜復(fù)雜的關(guān)系。處于金字塔頂端的是國(guó)王或國(guó)家，即土地所有者。在早期日耳曼法律中，Allodium是指以絕對(duì)所有權(quán)持有的土地財(cái)產(chǎn)，無(wú)需為上級(jí)或領(lǐng)主服務(wù)。與之相對(duì)的是feudum（拉丁語(yǔ)，“獎(jiǎng)賞”，或feud、fee或fief），是一種土地使用權(quán)施加嚴(yán)格義務(wù)的財(cái)產(chǎn)。在Allodial所有者下面的層級(jí)中，主要的承租人是capiti（拉丁語(yǔ)，“首席承租人”），是唯一直接從Allodial所有者那里持有土地的人。從首席承租人開(kāi)始，下面所有其他人都通過(guò)分封的方式持有土地，被稱為分租人。分封制將財(cái)產(chǎn)利益授予越來(lái)越小的保有權(quán)持有人，每個(gè)租戶都對(duì)上一級(jí)的土地所有者負(fù)有經(jīng)濟(jì)、服務(wù)和其他責(zé)任。

The feudal pyramid graphically represented feudalism’s intricate relationships among landholders, the king, and the state. At the pyramid’s apex was the king or the state, the allodial owner. An allodium in early Germanic law was an estate in land held in absolute ownership without service to a superior or to an overlord. Its opposite was a feudum (Latin, “a reward”), or feud, fee, or fief, a property in which tenure imposed strict duties. In the stratum below the allodial owner was the chief tenant, the tenant in capiti (Latin, “tenant in chief”), the only person holding land directly from the allodial owner. From the chief tenant all others below held land by the process of subinfudation and were called subtenants. Subinfudation granted property interests to smaller and smaller holders of tenure, each tenant owing economic, service, and other incidents to the landholder one level above.

土地保有權(quán)

? ? ? ? ? 土地保有權(quán)有四種基本類型。騎士的土地保有權(quán)是以軍事服務(wù)換取土地權(quán)。Frankalmoigne（封建英格蘭的封建土地保有權(quán)之一，教會(huì)機(jī)構(gòu)持有土地，無(wú)需服兵役）用宗教服務(wù)換取土地。Sergeanty（源自拉丁語(yǔ)serviens，在歐洲封建社會(huì)中也拼寫(xiě)為sergeantry、serjeanty或serjeantry，是一種土地保有權(quán)形式，作為對(duì)領(lǐng)主（無(wú)論是國(guó)王還是其他人）提供特定服務(wù)的回報(bào)而授予的。軍士包括工匠、領(lǐng)主領(lǐng)地內(nèi)的執(zhí)事、家仆，有時(shí)還包括為領(lǐng)主提供某種形式的軍事服務(wù)的人。當(dāng)沒(méi)有土地時(shí)，軍士就留在領(lǐng)主的家里。那些佃農(nóng)要繳納許多封建稅款，但可以免除納稅和從事某些勞動(dòng)。）身份產(chǎn)生了個(gè)人服務(wù)，大Sergeanty（軍士）身份偏向于法律和法庭職位，小Sergeanty（軍士）身份偏向于家庭傭人。Socage（英國(guó)封建制度中的封建義務(wù)和土地保有權(quán)形式之一，它最終演變成被稱為“由光榮但非精神、軍事或服務(wù)性質(zhì)的服務(wù)持有的自由土地保有權(quán)”的永久保有權(quán)，不涉及封建義務(wù)。農(nóng)民持有土地，以換取定期向封建領(lǐng)主支付明確規(guī)定的固定報(bào)酬。因此，領(lǐng)主有義務(wù)向農(nóng)民提供某些服務(wù)，例如保護(hù)，并向王室提供其他職責(zé)。付款通常采用現(xiàn)金形式，但有時(shí)也可以用貨物進(jìn)行）提供經(jīng)濟(jì)和田間勞動(dòng)。

Land tenure had four basic types. Knight’s tenure traded military service for land rights. Frankalmoigne exchanged religious services for land. Sergeanty generated personal services, with grand sergeanty for legal and court positions and petit sergeanty for household retainers. Socage provided economic and field labor.

騎士土地保有權(quán)

? ? ? ? ? 騎士文學(xué)中亞瑟王宮廷的騎士身披閃亮盔甲，拯救和愛(ài)護(hù)精致的少女，并與惡龍戰(zhàn)斗，而歷史上的騎士（盎格魯撒克遜語(yǔ)cniht，“年輕人”、“侍從”）是國(guó)王或貴族的軍事伙伴，在封建騎士任期內(nèi)，他們以軍事服務(wù)換取土地所有權(quán)。在騎士任期內(nèi)，騎士要履行軍事服務(wù)和封建義務(wù)，這些都是具體的義務(wù)，包括致敬、封地、政治和經(jīng)濟(jì)責(zé)任。一系列被稱為援助的緊急財(cái)政支付要求騎士為其領(lǐng)主支付贖金，并在領(lǐng)主的兒子受封為騎士或女兒結(jié)婚時(shí)支付強(qiáng)制性禮物。封建的婚姻事件賦予了領(lǐng)主為其佃戶的繼承人選擇新娘的權(quán)利，或出售這一權(quán)利。騎士的女兒想要嫁給一個(gè)自己選擇的男人，通常必須通過(guò)購(gòu)買來(lái)擺脫她父親對(duì)其領(lǐng)主所負(fù)的土地使用權(quán)義務(wù)。

While a literary knight of King Arthur’s court jousted in shining armor, rescued and loved exquisite damsels, and fought fiery dragons, the historical knight (Anglo-Saxon cniht, “young man”) was a military associate of a king or nobleman who under feudal knight’s tenure exchanged military service for landholding. Under knight’s tenure the knight owed martial service and feudal incidents that were specific obligations including homage, fealty, political, and economic responsibilities. A series of emergency financial payments called aids required the knight to pay ransom payments for his overlord and mandatory gifts at the knighting of the overlord’s son or the marriage of his daughter. The feudal incident of marriage granted the overlord the right to choose a bride for his tenant’s heir or to sell that right. A knight’s daughter wanting to marry a man of her own choice usually had to buy her way out of the tenurial obligation her father owed to his overlord.

? ? ? ? ? 騎士對(duì)其領(lǐng)主的致敬和忠誠(chéng)的義務(wù)在實(shí)踐和表達(dá)上，與騎士對(duì)上帝的宗教義務(wù)和責(zé)任有著驚人的相似之處。同樣，騎士也要向他心愛(ài)的世俗女士，即Donna（意大利語(yǔ)：? [?d?nna]，這是對(duì)女性，尤其是成熟女性的常見(jiàn)尊稱），以及教會(huì)中高高在上的圣母瑪利亞表示敬意和忠誠(chéng)。

A knight’s obligation of homage and fealty to his overlord had fascinating parallels in practice and expression to the knight’s religious duties and responsibilities to the Lord God. Likewise, the knight owed homage and fealty to his beloved secular lady, the donna, and to the church’s exalted Lady Mary.

? ? ? ? ? 被發(fā)現(xiàn)犯有叛國(guó)罪或違反誓言的佃農(nóng)騎士將受到?jīng)]收的懲罰，即被迫放棄土地所有權(quán)。救濟(jì)金是佃農(nóng)騎士的繼承人為擁有繼承土地的權(quán)利而支付的錢。如果一個(gè)騎士死了，而他的繼承人是21歲以下的未成年人，那么領(lǐng)主既要收取死亡賠償金，又要提供土地的管理權(quán)。在管理權(quán)下，領(lǐng)主占有財(cái)產(chǎn)，并收取所有租金和土地利潤(rùn)。如果一個(gè)佃農(nóng)騎士死后沒(méi)有繼承人，那么財(cái)產(chǎn)就會(huì)通過(guò)遺贈(zèng)程序歸屬領(lǐng)主。兵役免除稅（拉丁語(yǔ)scutum，“盾牌”）是封建法律規(guī)定的一種罰款或稅收，如果持有騎士費(fèi)的租戶拒絕或無(wú)法提供軍事服務(wù)以換取土地使用權(quán)，則該租戶應(yīng)向領(lǐng)主支付這種罰款或稅收，也叫“盾牌服務(wù)”。Escuage（騎士所需服兵役的費(fèi)用），騎士自費(fèi)加入國(guó)王的戰(zhàn)爭(zhēng)，為期40天，或派人代替，或支付金錢（來(lái)“買斷”兵役）。

The tenant knight found guilty of treason or breach of an oath of fealty was punished by forfeiture, the forced giving up of land possession. Relief was the money a knight tenant’s heir paid for the right to possess inherited land. If a knight died and his heir was a minor, below age 21, the overlord both collected a death payment and provided stewardship of the land. Under wardship the overlord took possession of the property and collected all rents and profits from the land. If a tenant knight died without heirs, the property reverted to the overlord by the process of escheat. Scutage (Latin scutum, “shield”) was a fine or tax under feudal law that a tenant holding a knight’s fee owed to an overlord if the knight refused to or was unable to provide military service in return for the land tenure. Also called shield service, escuage, the knight joined the king at war for 40 days at his own cost or sent a substitute or a monetary payment, scutage.

? ? ? ? ? 英格蘭國(guó)王約翰（1199-1216年）由于需要錢來(lái)為他的對(duì)外戰(zhàn)爭(zhēng)提供資金，他殘酷地實(shí)施了緊急財(cái)政支付、兵役免除稅、破壞性征稅和壓迫性的封建義務(wù)。這些都是不滿的貴族們于1215年在蘭尼米德（Runnymede）與他會(huì)面的主要原因，他們?cè)谀抢锲仁箛?guó)王簽署了有63條條款的《大憲章》（拉丁語(yǔ)，“great charter”）。這份強(qiáng)有力的文件影響了后來(lái)英國(guó)、歐洲和美國(guó)的基本權(quán)利與憲法的概念，如禁止在沒(méi)有代表的情況下征稅和由同行陪審團(tuán)審判?！洞髴椪隆反_立了新的國(guó)家法律，即只有王國(guó)的普通議會(huì)才能征收雜費(fèi)和補(bǔ)助金，而且，除了為贖回騎士的尸體、為其長(zhǎng)子授勛和為其長(zhǎng)女結(jié)婚所需的補(bǔ)助金外，其他的補(bǔ)助金都是有限和合理的。此外，任何自由人都不得被審判、懲罰、放逐、監(jiān)禁或剝奪土地，除非被平等的陪審團(tuán)判定有罪（第39條）。

England’s King John (r. 1199–1216), in his need of money to finance his foreign wars, had brutally enforced aids, scutage, ruinous taxation, and oppressive feudal obligations. These were the major reasons why disgruntled nobles met him in 1215 at Runnymede, where they forced the king to sign the 63-clause Magna Carta (Latin, “great charter”). That powerful document influenced later British, European, and American concepts of basic rights and constitutions, such as prohibition of taxation without representation and trial by jury of peers. The Magna Carta established as new law of the land that scutage and aids were to be levied only by the common council of the kingdom, and, except for aids required for ransoming the knight’s body, knighting his oldest son, and marrying his oldest daughter, were to be limited and reasonable. Moreover, no freeman was to be tried, punished, exiled, imprisoned, or stripped of land except when convicted of crime by a jury of equals (clause 39).

Frankalmoigne

? ? ? ? ? Frankalmoigne是一種精神上的保有權(quán)。作為對(duì)土地所有權(quán)的回報(bào)，神職人員或教會(huì)團(tuán)體在贈(zèng)與人活著時(shí)為其發(fā)放救濟(jì)金并做彌撒或祈禱，在他死后為其靈魂祈禱。

Frankalmoigne was spiritual tenure. In return for an estate in land, a clergyman or an ecclesiastical corporation distributed alms and said masses or prayers for the grantor when alive and in honor of his soul after his death.

Sergeanty

? ? ? ? ? Sergeanty（軍士）是為國(guó)王提供個(gè)人服務(wù)的封建土地使用權(quán)。大Sergeanty（軍士）包括影響國(guó)家防御的大多數(shù)頭銜。大Sergeanty（軍士）是國(guó)王的Marshal（中世紀(jì)國(guó)王、王子或貴族家庭中的高級(jí)官員，最初負(fù)責(zé)騎兵，但后來(lái)通常指揮軍隊(duì)）、旗手、律師和Cornage（拉丁文Cornus，“喇叭”，一種古老的土地保有權(quán)，要求佃戶通過(guò)吹號(hào)角來(lái)發(fā)出入侵通知）專家，即吹喇叭的人，他們隨時(shí)準(zhǔn)備好并能夠發(fā)出警報(bào)，提醒人們注意危險(xiǎn)。小Sergeanty（軍士）或更小的Sergeanty（軍士）提供廚師、裁判員、宴會(huì)廳和廚房服務(wù)，從儀式的調(diào)查員到廚房和爐灶火的木材采集員。

Sergeanty was the feudal land tenure providing personal service to the king. Grand sergeanty included most titles affecting the defense of the country. Grand sergeants were the king’s marshal, banner bearer, attorney, and expert in cornage (Latin cornus, “horn”), the horn blower whose readiness and ability to sound an alarm alerted people to danger. Petit or petty sergeanty provided the cooks, quistrons, and banquet hall and kitchen services ranging from the surveyor of ceremonies down through the wood gatherers for the fires of kitchen and hearth.

Socage

? ? ? ? ? 在socage制度下，對(duì)地主負(fù)有義務(wù)的土地所有者被稱為soke man；他需要支付諸如封建、救濟(jì)（繼承土地的特權(quán)）、escheat（無(wú)繼承人的土地所有者死亡時(shí)將土地歸屬領(lǐng)主）和法庭持有等封建義務(wù)。村民是封建農(nóng)奴、鄉(xiāng)村勞動(dòng)者或農(nóng)民，通過(guò)占有土地、耕種土地并向領(lǐng)主提供勞動(dòng)報(bào)酬而持有土地使用權(quán)。Average是農(nóng)奴和他的牛為封建領(lǐng)主所做的工作。(在國(guó)際貿(mào)易中，海損是對(duì)運(yùn)輸?shù)呢浳镎魇盏囊环N海事或海關(guān)稅。在西方語(yǔ)言中，這個(gè)詞的歷史始于中世紀(jì)地中海的海上貿(mào)易。12世紀(jì)和13世紀(jì)的熱那亞拉丁語(yǔ)“avaria”的意思是“與商船航行有關(guān)的損壞、損失和非正常費(fèi)用”，英語(yǔ)含義的巨大轉(zhuǎn)變始于中世紀(jì)晚期和近代早期西方商船法合同的實(shí)踐，根據(jù)該合同，如果船舶遇到猛烈風(fēng)暴，則必須將一些貨物扔到海里，以使船舶更輕、更安全，那么所有貨物在船上的商人都將受到相應(yīng)的損失（而不是把貨物扔到海里的人）；更一般地說(shuō)，任何avaria都應(yīng)按比例分配。從那時(shí)起，這個(gè)詞被英國(guó)保險(xiǎn)公司、債權(quán)人和商人所采用，用于談?wù)撍麄兊膿p失分散在整個(gè)資產(chǎn)組合中，并且具有平均比例)

Under socage, the landholder owing obligations to a landowner was called a soke man; he was required to pay such feudal incidents as fealty, relief (for the privilege of inheriting land), escheat (reverting of land to the overlord at death of an heirless landholder), and court holding. A villein was a feudal serf, a country laborer, or a peasant holding land in tenure by possessing it, working it, and providing labor payments to the overlord. Average was work done for the feudal lord by the serf and his oxen. (In international trade an average was a maritime or customs tax on shipped goods.)

? ? ? ? ? 村民提供周工作（盎格魯撒克遜語(yǔ)wicweorc，每周的工作，租戶每周很多天為領(lǐng)主所做的工作），即在領(lǐng)主的領(lǐng)地——家庭農(nóng)場(chǎng)上的勞動(dòng)，有時(shí)是七天中的三天。此外，還提供額外的工作，即在領(lǐng)地上耕作和收割等季節(jié)性工作。在英國(guó)，領(lǐng)地是指為自己使用而占有的土地，屬于自己，即tenere in domineo；以自由使用權(quán)占有的土地，而不是以服務(wù)方式占有的土地，即tenere in servitio。有些恩惠工作是酒水恩惠，為勞動(dòng)者提供免費(fèi)的啤酒和晚餐。nuncheon（我們現(xiàn)代的午餐一詞可能來(lái)自于此）是為田間勞動(dòng)者提供的免費(fèi)午間酒、蘋(píng)果酒、果汁或水。

The villein provided week work (AngloSaxon wicweorc), the labor on the lord’s own demesne, the home farm, sometimes three days out of seven. This was augmented by boon work, the extra work for demesne haymaking or harvesting. In England a demesne was land held in possession for one’s own use, belonging to oneself, tenere in domineo, lands possessed by free tenure, as opposed to lands held in service, tenere in servitio. Some boon work was wet boon, providing the laborer free ale and dinner. A nuncheon, from which our modern word luncheon may be derived, was a free noontime quench of wine, cider, juice, or water for laborers in the fields.

? ? ? ? ? 次封地（指在國(guó)王或其他上級(jí)領(lǐng)主統(tǒng)治下持有土地的佃農(nóng)，通過(guò)轉(zhuǎn)租或轉(zhuǎn)讓其部分土地來(lái)依次開(kāi)辟新的、獨(dú)特的保有權(quán)的做法）導(dǎo)致封建金字塔底部的土地所有者的義務(wù)越來(lái)越小，這是一種無(wú)效的創(chuàng)造收益的方法，它還抑制了經(jīng)濟(jì)增長(zhǎng)。1290年，英格蘭議會(huì)頒布了一項(xiàng)名為Quia emptores（拉丁語(yǔ)，“because the buyers”，禁止佃農(nóng)通過(guò)分封地的方式將其土地轉(zhuǎn)讓給他人，而是要求所有希望轉(zhuǎn)讓土地的佃農(nóng)必須通過(guò)替代方式轉(zhuǎn)讓土地）的法規(guī)。這條法律禁止永久產(chǎn)權(quán)地產(chǎn)的分封，從這一年開(kāi)始，所有的土地轉(zhuǎn)讓都是通過(guò)替代的方式進(jìn)行的。將土地權(quán)利和責(zé)任從一個(gè)擁有者轉(zhuǎn)移到另一個(gè)擁有者，基本上摧毀了封建的金字塔，并創(chuàng)造了現(xiàn)代財(cái)產(chǎn)法。Quia emptores頒布之后，國(guó)王和領(lǐng)主重新獲得了土地使用權(quán)協(xié)議的大部分利潤(rùn)。然后，領(lǐng)主們可以自由地授予采邑授與得益人（cestui que uses，拉丁語(yǔ)，“擁有使用權(quán)的人”），即使用和獲得土地和建筑物的利潤(rùn)與利益的權(quán)利，而另一個(gè)人對(duì)這些土地和建筑物擁有合法的所有權(quán)、擁有權(quán)和維護(hù)責(zé)任。

Subinfudation led to increasingly small obligations of landholders at the base of the feudal pyramid, an ineffectual method of generating cash. It also inhibited economic growth. In the year 1290 England’s Parliament enacted a statute called Quia emptores (Latin, “because the buyers”). This law forbade subinfudation of freehold estates. All land transfers from that year forward were by the process of substitution. Substituting land rights and responsibilities from one possessor to another essentially destroyed the feudal pyramid and created modern property law. After Quia emptores, king and overlords regained most profits from land tenure agreements. Overlords then had freedom to grant cestui que uses (Latin, “he who has use”), the right to use and obtain profits and benefits of land and buildings for which another person had legal title, possession, and responsibility to defend.

? ? ? ? ? 通過(guò)頒布名為《使用權(quán)法》（通過(guò)將其土地所有權(quán)交由受托人為其自身的唯一利益（“使用”）來(lái)解決，以防止任何土地所有者逃避“救濟(jì)”和監(jiān)護(hù)權(quán)（封建繼承稅））的法律，強(qiáng)大的、但卻缺乏現(xiàn)金的國(guó)王亨利八世后來(lái)廢除了無(wú)產(chǎn)權(quán)使用權(quán)。1536年，亨利國(guó)王向不情愿的議會(huì)強(qiáng)行頒布法律，將使用土地的衡平法權(quán)利轉(zhuǎn)化為法定所有權(quán)和占有權(quán)。他將“使用權(quán)”轉(zhuǎn)變?yōu)橥耆袡?quán)。

By enacting the law called the Statute of Uses, powerful though cash-poor King Henry VIII later abolished cestui que use without title. In 1536 King Henry forced upon an unwilling Parliament the law to convert the equitable right to use land into legal title and right to possess. He transformed cestui que use to full ownership.

《Handbook To Life in The Medieval World》（2008）

By Madeleine Pelner Cosman and Linda Gale Jones?

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