Earth Science

地質(zhì)時(shí)間表∶不需要記憶全部的年代，但需要記住一些重要的年代：

Cretaceous 白堊紀(jì)，一次生物的大滅絕，其中的代表動(dòng)物為恐龍；

Jurassic 侏羅紀(jì)，蕨類植物常見，恐龍繁盛時(shí)期；

Cambrian 寒武紀(jì)，脊索動(dòng)物首次出現(xiàn)。

地球結(jié)構(gòu)：

Core 地核∶分為 outer core 和 inner core 兩部分。外地核是流動(dòng)的，主要包含了鐵（iron）元素和硫（sulfur）元素；內(nèi)地核是固體，主要包含了鐵元素和鎳（nickel）元素。

Mantle 地?！弥饕蓭r石組成

Crust 地殼∶地球的最表面，我們生活的地方，也是主要由巖石組成

Asthenosphere 軟流層∶地幔的一部分，為緩慢流動(dòng)的巖石

Lithosphere 巖石圈∶包含了地幔的上部和地殼

板塊運(yùn)動(dòng)的幾種形式∶

1. Divergent plate boundary 離散板塊邊界∶Two plates are moving away from each other. This causes a gap that can be filled with magma, and when it cools new crust is formed.

2. Convergent plate boundary 聚合板塊邊界∶ Two plates are pushed toward each other， usually causing a subduction zone（俯沖帶）or orogenic belt（造山帶）. One of the plates will be pushed deep into the mantle.

舉例∶板塊交界處的山脈（如喜馬拉雅山脈）

3. Transform（fault） boundary 轉(zhuǎn)換斷層∶Two plates slide from side to side relative to each other. This often causes earthquakes.

地震

Focus 震源∶ The location at which the earthquake begins within the Earth

Epicenter 震中∶The exact point on the surface of Earth directly above the location where rock ruptures during an earthquake.

Richter scale 里氏震級(jí)∶一次地震中最強(qiáng)烈的地表運(yùn)動(dòng)，分為10級(jí)

Seismograph 地震儀∶測量地震的強(qiáng)度，而不是預(yù)測地震

火山∶

Active volcano 活火山∶正在噴發(fā)或有噴發(fā)紀(jì)錄

Dormant volcano 休眠火山∶有史以來曾經(jīng)噴發(fā)過.但長期以來處于相對靜止?fàn)顟B(tài)的火山，未來有噴發(fā)的可能性

Extinct volcano 死火山∶不會(huì)再次噴發(fā)

季節(jié)

Seasons are a result of the tilt of the Earth's axis.

春分（3.21）、秋分（9.23）時(shí)，全球晝夜等長，太陽直射赤道

夏至（6.22）時(shí)，北半球晝達(dá)到最長，北極圈內(nèi)出現(xiàn)極晝現(xiàn)象，南半球全部相反，太陽直射北回歸線

冬至（12.22）時(shí)，北半球晝達(dá)到最短，北極圈內(nèi)出現(xiàn)極夜現(xiàn)象，南半球全部相反，太陽直射南回歸線

Tropic of Cancer 北回歸線，Tropic of Capricorn 南回歸線

The differences in heating from the equator to the poles help create our global wind pattern.

The Atmosphere

大氣層的組成（從低到高）∶troposphere，stratosphere，mesosphere，thermosphere，exosphere

Troposphere 對流層∶人類生活的主要區(qū)域，溫室效應(yīng)的出現(xiàn)。溫室效應(yīng)是H2O和CO2等溫室氣體吸收了從地面反射到空中的太陽輻射，使得氣溫升高形成的。主要區(qū)域溫度隨著海拔的上升而下降。

注意在 tropopause（對流頂層的過渡帶），溫度隨著海拔的上升而上升。

Stratosphere 平流層∶溫度隨著海拔的上升而上升，臭氧在這一層中起到吸收紫外線的保護(hù)作用。

Mesosphere 中間層∶ 流星在本層燃燒

Thermosphere 熱層∶大氣最為稀薄，也被稱之為ionosphere電離層

Exosphere 逃逸層

天氣和氣候

Weather: day-to-day properties?

Climate: long-run patterns

Coriolis effect 科里奧利效應(yīng)∶地轉(zhuǎn)偏向力，北半球右偏，南半球左偏

Cyclone 氣旋∶低氣壓中心，由于科里奧利效應(yīng)，北半球逆時(shí)針，南半球順時(shí)針

Hurricane 颶風(fēng)（大西洋）和 typhoon臺(tái)風(fēng)（太平洋）都屬于氣旋

Trade winds 信風(fēng)∶北半球東北信風(fēng)，南半球東南信風(fēng)，存在于低緯度地區(qū)

Westerlies 西風(fēng)和西風(fēng)帶∶由科里奧利效應(yīng)導(dǎo)致，存在于中緯度地區(qū)

赤道低氣壓帶∶warm air rises; low temperature

低緯度地區(qū)（0°-30°）∶信風(fēng)帶，氣候干燥炎熱

副熱帶高氣壓帶∶ air descends; high pressure

中緯度地區(qū)（30°-60°）∶西風(fēng)帶，氣候溫和濕潤

副極地低氣壓帶∶ polar front; warmer air rises; low pressure

高緯度地區(qū)（60°-90°）∶極地東風(fēng)帶，氣候干燥寒冷

橫向∶horizontal airflow

縱向∶convection current

氣流從高壓流向低壓，形成循環(huán)（Hadley Cell，F(xiàn)errel CellPolar Cell都是由于這個(gè)原理）

兩個(gè)無風(fēng)帶∶

赤道無風(fēng)帶（南北緯 5°之間）∶equatorial doldrums

副熱帶無風(fēng)帶（南北緯 30°-35°之間）∶ horse latitudes

季風(fēng)Monsoon

成因：海陸熱力性質(zhì)差異，陸地受熱較快，海洋受熱較慢

夏季季風(fēng)由海洋吹向陸地，溫暖濕潤；冬季季風(fēng)由陸地吹向海洋，寒冷干燥。

雨影效應(yīng)Rain shadow effect

迎風(fēng)坡降水較多（windward condensation），背風(fēng)坡降水較少（leeward warming）

背風(fēng)坡通常為干旱或半干旱氣候

El Nino 厄爾尼諾現(xiàn)象∶

Key words: Pacific Ocean; result of a decrease in upselling; a dramatic decline in many fish populations; flooding in Peru; drought in Brazil and parts of Indonesia

引起厄爾尼諾現(xiàn)象的原因∶

1. Trade winds weaken and warm water moves eastward

2. Upper ocean layer keeps nutrient-rich water from upwelling along coast of the Americans

3. Ocean heat is released into atmosphere and alters path of jet stream

La Nina拉尼娜現(xiàn)象（又稱反厄爾尼諾）∶

More Atlantic coast hurricanes as well as colder winters in the northeastern United States but warmer, drier winters in the southeastern United States.

Water Resources

地球上75%是水，主要為海水，淡水僅占小部分。

淡水分層∶

Littoral zone: very shallow water at the shoreline; abundant sunlight; extend to the depth at which rooted plants stop growing

Limnetic zone: surface of open water; extends to the depoth that sunlight can penetrate; organisms are short-lived and rely on sunlight to carry out photosynthesis?

Profundal zone: an aphotic zone (no sunlight)

Benthic zone: deepest layer; very low temperatures and low oxygen levels

Groundwater 地下水∶

Fills underground porous spaces, from wells or aquifers (non-renewable). Water mining: withdrawals from aquifers

保護(hù)地下水∶

1.subsidize water conservation strategies

2.implement water conservation practices in residential homes?

3.increase the price of water to discourage waste?

4. reduce the number of water-intensive crops being grown

Surface water 地表水∶

Includes rivers, lakes, wetlands, estuaries, and oceans.

Hydroelectric power station 水力發(fā)電站

流程∶Create freshwater reservoirs→flooding→stores the surface water runoff

e.g.Three Gorges Dam 三峽大壩，為世界上規(guī)模最大的水電站

三峽大壩的爭議∶水庫中的植被腐壞會(huì)導(dǎo)致大量甲烷逸出，需要遷移人口等

Water transfer projects 調(diào)水工程

將水資源從豐富地區(qū)運(yùn)到不足地區(qū)， Aral Sea， California， China都有開展調(diào)水工程

海水分層∶

Coastal zone: closest to land; between the shore and the end of the continental shelf

Euphotic zone: photic, upper layers; warmest region of oceans; highest levels of dissolved oxygen Bathyal zone: middle region; insufficient light for photosynthesis; colder

Abyssal zone: deepest region; extremely cold temperatures; very low levels of dissolved oxygen; very high levels of nutrients

Upwellings: provide a new nutrient supply for the growth of living organisms in the photic regions

Red tides: toxic algal bloom

洋流

形成原因∶ sunlight; prevailing winds; differences in salinity; Earth's rotation

水資源利用現(xiàn)狀：

Less than 1% water is available as freshwater

缺水的形容詞 water-stressed < water-scarce

保護(hù)水資源的方法

1. Proper irrigation could reduce water loss (e.g. drip irrigation; center pivot; soil moisture monitors)

2. Improving industrial and residential water conservation (e.g.fix leaks; recycle water)

3. Increasing fresh water supplies (e.g. desalination →reverse osmosis, use external pressure; distillation, heat saltwater until evaporation)

家庭用水中占比最多的是沖廁所，總體用水中占比最多的是灌溉

SOIL

巖石循環(huán)

Igneous rock 火山巖∶巖漿凝固后形成，代表為花崗巖（basalt）

Sedimentary rock 沉積巖∶沉積物壓縮而成，通常存在于 subduction zone，代表為石灰石（limestone）

Metamorphic rock 變質(zhì)巖∶高壓高熱作用形成，可發(fā)生于地幔，代表為大理巖（slate）

土壤的種類∶

按照顆粒大小∶clay<silt<sand，含有三種顆粒且含量大致相等的土壤叫做loamy，最適合耕種

按照 pH∶ acidity酸度 & alkalinity 堿度

土壤的形成∶ weathering

Physical (mechanical) weathering: any weathering process without changing chemistry Chemical weathering: result of chemical interactions (e.g. rust)Biological weathering: result of activities of living organisms

土壤的分層（horizons）∶

O horizon: the uppermost horizon; primarily made of organic material;organic decomposition forms humus?

A horizon (topsoil): made of weathered rock and organic material travelled down from O layer; important for plants'growth; zone of leaching

E horizon: clay, iron, aluminum oxides

B horizon: minerals leached from A layer and organic matters washed down from topsoil; illuviation due to gravity; zone of accumulation

C horizon: the bottommost horizon; large pieces of rocks

土地問題∶

1. monoculture 單作∶不利于土壤保護(hù)，會(huì)造成一系列問題，比如生物多樣性下降、土壤營養(yǎng)值下降、病蟲害增多等等。應(yīng)對方案為 crop rotation輪作。

2. reliance on large machinery: result of the Green Revolution

3. salinization鹽堿化∶會(huì)導(dǎo)致 soil degradation，應(yīng)對方案為 drip irrigation 滴灌。

4. soil erosion: result from logging, slash-and-burn agriculture, over-cultivation,overgrazing, urbanization,etc.

土壤保護(hù)∶

1. Use of animal waste(manure), compost,and the residue of plants to increase the amount of organic matter in the soil. 增加土壤中的有機(jī)物含量

2. Practice of organic agriculture,a method of farming that utilizes compost, manure, crop rotation,and non-chemical methods to manage soil fertility and pest control.實(shí)行有機(jī)農(nóng)業(yè)

3. Modification of tillage practices to reduce the breakup of soil and to reduce the amount of erosion, including contour plowing and strip planting.根據(jù)等高線種植

4.Use of trees and other wind barriers to reduce the force of the wind.建立防風(fēng)帶

相關(guān)法案∶

Soil and Water Conservation Act?

Food Security Act

AGRICULTURE

農(nóng)業(yè)類型

Slash-and-burn agriculture: cutting down and burning; severely reduces the amount of available forest Traditional or subsistence agriculture:provides one family's food

Plantation agriculture: common in developing countries; cultivates cash crops; requires chemical fertilizers and pesticides; monoculture

Industrialized agriculture: high efficiency; uses fossil fuels, irrigation water, inorganic chemical fertilizers,and pesticides

農(nóng)業(yè)引起的問題∶

Soil erosion∶過度灌溉引起土壤侵蝕

Deforestation∶森林砍伐破壞了動(dòng)物棲息地和生態(tài)平衡

Fertilizer runoff∶濫用肥料導(dǎo)致嚴(yán)重的富營養(yǎng)化

Irrigation damage soil∶灌溉問題引起土壤被降解

Soil salinization∶過度砍伐、過度放牧、浸灌、地下水上升都會(huì)導(dǎo)致土壤中鹽分過高

Waterlogging∶降水過多，排水不及時(shí)

Desertification∶人口的迅速增長，土地濫用

Green Revolution綠色革命∶

The development of high-yielding monoculture crops; the use of large inputs of inorganic fertilizer; heavy use of pesticides; intensive irrigation

關(guān)于害蟲的防治

Cultural (physical) control Chemical control: pesticides?

Biological control

Pesticides: kill harmless animals; affect whole food chains; be persistent; lead pests develop resistance?

Types: broad spectrum pesticides, narrow spectrum pesticides(target species), herbicides, fungicides, rodenticides; insecticides

Influence of pesticides:

The pesticide treadmill∶害蟲的抗藥性提高，使得殺蟲劑濃度不斷提升

The cost of applying a pesticide to the crops will influence the price of food

FIFRA: requires the EPA to approve the use of all pesticides in the U.S.

IPM∶integrated pestmanagement 利用害蟲的天敵、莊稼的輪作，干擾其繁殖交配，減少殺蟲劑的使用

Silent Spring: Rachel Carson, raise people's awareness of DDT

Genetically modified organisms(GMO)

轉(zhuǎn)基因產(chǎn)品具有爭議，到現(xiàn)在還不知道究竟轉(zhuǎn)基因產(chǎn)品會(huì)如何影響人類

糧食和營養(yǎng)問題

Undernutrition∶沒有足夠的營養(yǎng)去保持健康

Malnutrition∶營養(yǎng)不均衡

Kwashiorkor∶惡性營養(yǎng)不良，缺乏蛋白質(zhì)

Marasmus∶過度消瘦，缺乏胡蘿卜素和蛋白質(zhì)

Anemia∶缺鐵，貧血

Prevent soil degradation:

Contour plowing?

Terracing?

No-till methods?

Crop rotation

Intercropping (strip cropping)

Forestry

Types:

Old growth forest: never been cut

Second growth forest: cutting has occurred and a new, younger forest has arisen naturally

Plantations/tree farms: planted by humans and harvested for commercial use

Deforestation:

Clear-cutting: removal of all of the trees in an area

Selective cutting: removal of select trees in an area; uneven-aged management; shelter-wood cutting

Influence:

1. 降低土壤肥力→nutrients are removed；soil erosion may be rapid；the soil below coniferous forests is often of poor quality for agriculture

2. 洪水和塌方 → water may accumulate rapidly in river valleys，often causing landslips from steep hillside

3. 物質(zhì)循環(huán)變化→CO2 concentration increases due to less photosynthesis; O2 concentration decreases; the atmosphere may become drier and the soil wetter due to less evaporation and transpiration

4. 氣候變化 → water cycle changes due to less rainfall； rapid heat absorption by bare soil raises the temperature of the lower atmosphere in some areas, causing thermal gradients which results in more frequent and intense winds

5.物種滅絕→mountain gorillas（central Africa）；golden line tamarins （Brazil）； ospreys （north Europe）； some medical plants

相關(guān)法案

Wilderness Act: road free areas; Wildlife Refuges and National Park Systems with restriction?

Wild and Scenic Rivers Act: National Wild and Scenic Rivers System

Greenbelt∶城市外圍的綠化帶，能夠提高附近人們的生活質(zhì)量和限制城市增長

森林火災(zāi)∶

Surface fires: only burn the underbrush and do little damage to the forest; actually protect the forest Crown fires: burn the canopies and spread quickly; do huge damage to the forest

Ground fires: burn underground in swamps ancd bogs; can be difficult to detect and extinguish

"controlled burn"∶指人為的制造一些可控的著火，以起到保護(hù)森林的作用

Forest protection:

As a cash crop, providing timber for building or for fuel?

To reserve soil erosion

To provide valuable wildlife habitats

As recreational areas, proving leisure activities such as camping and mountain biking

Rangelands

Desertification 沙漠化∶ removal of native vegetation

Overgrazing 過度放牧∶occurs when a plant re-grazed before the roots recover Pastures become less productive, soils have less organic matter, biodiversity decreases

牧場管理方法∶

Controlling the number and distribution of livestock to limit the carrying capacity?

Restoring degraded rangelands

To recover the rangeland, moving livestock from one place to another?

Fencing off riparian areas to reduce damage to these sensitive areas?

Suppressing the growth of invasive plant species

Replanting barren rangeland with native grass seed to reduce soil erosion?

Providing supplemental feed at selected sites

Locating water holes, water tanks, and salt blocks atstrategic points that do not degrade the environment

Other Land Use

Urbanization: rapid population growth

城市化的利弊可以通過土地、教育、回收系統(tǒng)、衛(wèi)生系統(tǒng)、稅收、工業(yè)等方面考慮

Transportation system: Federal Highway System

Channelization of Rivers: increases the flow rate of the river and increases the risk of flooding downstream

道路建設(shè)的影響∶ fragmentation of habitat; perilous road crossings by wildlife; provides access to heavy equipment for large-scale resource extraction

公共和聯(lián)邦土地∶

U.S. Federal Agencies: preservation, recreation, and development of natural resources

The Bureau of Land Management (BLM): multiple-use and sustained yields of various products and services;responsible for subsurface mineral resources?

National parks

Land conservation options: preservation,remediation, mitigation, restoration, and sustainable land use strategies

Bioremediation∶ 生物，尤其是真菌和細(xì)菌，分解一些有害物質(zhì)從而達(dá)到對于環(huán)境的恢復(fù)

Mitigation 減緩政策∶restore a wetland of equal area in another location

Sustainability∶保護(hù)物種多樣性、動(dòng)植物棲息地、生態(tài)系統(tǒng)，增加開采資源的稅收，給予補(bǔ)償?shù)?/p>

Mining

Metallic/nonmetallic minerals

Mineral deposit: a particular mineral is concentrated

Ore: a rock or mineral from which a valuable substance can be extracted at a profit Gangue: waste material, and piles of gangues are called tailings

礦產(chǎn)資源通常會(huì)存在于板塊的邊界處

采礦類型∶

Strip mining （open-pit mining）露天采礦∶must remove the overburden to reach the mineral; using explosives and heavy equipment

Surface mining 表層采礦∶ lie in horizontal beds close to the earth's surface

Mountaintop removal 山頂搬移∶ removing the top of a mountain; remove coals with shovels or bulldozers

Open-pit mining 露天采礦∶ using explosives and heavy equipment

Subsurface mining 地下采礦∶ deep vertical mine shafts（too far underground）

Drilling 鉆井技術(shù)∶ using pressure to remove liquids and gases

Acid mine drainage 排泄酸性礦水∶sulfur compounds in mine waste，causing a sulfuric acid solution

Smelting 熔煉∶ heating of ores， causing air pollution and acid rain

Cyanide solution mining or heap-leach extraction 氰化物溶液采礦∶spraying cyanide solutions on piles of crushed ore

相關(guān)法案

Mining Act: governed prospecting and mining of minerals on publicly owned land

Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act: mined land be restored to its pre-mining state

環(huán)境問題∶ habitats above the deposit are destroyed

Fishing

捕魚的方式∶

Long-line fishing: incidental catching; controversy method

Purse-seine fishing: a net is used to surround a large school of fish; by-catch includes any fish

Trawler fishing: large metal chain baskets holding nets; scrape up just about everything on the ocean floor Drift-net fishing: catch large numbers of individuals from non-target species

Aquaculture (fish farming): farming aquatic organism

Concerns: bycatch; nutrient pollution; excessive antibiotic use; changes to genetic diversity; degradation of aquatic ecosystem

相關(guān)法案∶

Marine Mammal Protection Act: establish a federal responsibility to conserve marine mammals

Endangered Species Act: provide broad protection for threatened and endangered species of fish, wildlife, and plants

Global Economics

Tragedy of the Commons

A resource that is free and available to evervone is a common, which is vulnerable.

避免公地悲劇∶regulations or restrictions; privatize a common