Plato’s Pupil, Alexander’s Teacher

柏拉圖的學生，亞歷山大的老師

Aristotle was not an Athenian; he was born, fifteen years after the death of Socrates, at Stagira in the kingdom of Macedonia in northern Greece.?

亞里士多德不是雅典人；他出生在蘇格拉底去世后的十五年，位于希臘北部馬其頓王國的斯塔基拉。

The son of a court physician, he migrated to Athens in 367 at the age of seventeen, and joined Plato’s Academy, where he remained for twenty years.?

他是一位宮廷醫(yī)生的兒子，十七歲時于公元前367年移居雅典，加入了柏拉圖的學院，在那里停留了二十年。

Many of Plato’s later dialogues date from this period, and some of the arguments they contain may reflect Aristotle’s contributions to debate.?

柏拉圖的許多后期對話都是在這個時期寫成的，其中一些論點可能反映了亞里士多德對辯論的貢獻。

By a flattering anachronism, Plato introduces a character called ‘Aristotle’ into the Parmenides (dramatic date c.450), which is the dialogue most critical of the Theory of Ideas.?

以一種吹捧的時代錯誤，柏拉圖在《巴門尼德》（戲劇日期約公元前450年）中引入了一個叫‘亞里士多德’的角色，這是對理型論最為批判的對話。

Probably some of Aristotle’s own works on logic and disputation, the Topics and the Sophistical Refutations, belong to this period.?

亞里士多德自己關于邏輯和辯論的一些作品，如《論題篇》和《智者詭辯術的駁斥》，可能屬于這個時期。

While Aristotle was at the Academy, Macedonia grew from being an unstable border province to become the greatest power in Greece.?

當亞里士多德在學園時，馬其頓從一個不穩(wěn)定的邊境省份成長為希臘最強大的力量。

King Philip II, who came to the throne in 359, waged war against a series of hostile powers including Athens.?

在公元前359年登基的菲利普二世國王，對包括雅典在內的一系列敵對勢力發(fā)動了戰(zhàn)爭。

The Athenians, despite the orator Demosthenes’ martial patriotic speeches (the ‘Philippics’), defended their interests only half-heartedly, and after a succession of humiliating concessions they allowed Philip to become, by 338, master of the Greek world.?

盡管有演說家德摩斯梯尼的戰(zhàn)爭愛國演說（‘菲利比卡’），但雅典人只是半心半意地保衛(wèi)他們的利益，在一連串屈辱的讓步之后，他們讓菲利普在公元前338年成為希臘世界的主人。

The period was a difficult one for a Macedonian resident in Athens, and in 347 when Plato died and his nephew Speusippus became head of the Academy, Aristotle moved to Assos on the north-western coast of what is now Turkey.?

這段時期對于居住在雅典的馬其頓人來說是困難的，在公元前347年柏拉圖去世，他的侄子斯佩烏西普斯成為學園的負責人時，亞里士多德搬到了現(xiàn)在土耳其西北海岸的阿索斯。

The city was under the rule of Hermias, a graduate of the Academy, who had already invited a number of Academicians to form a new philosophical school there.?

這座城市由赫米亞斯統(tǒng)治，他是學園的一位畢業(yè)生，他已經邀請了一些學園成員來在那里組建一個新的哲學學派。

Aristotle became an intimate friend of Hermias, and married his adopted daughter Pythias, by whom he had two children.?

亞里士多德成為了赫米亞斯的密友，并娶了他的養(yǎng)女皮提亞，他們有兩個孩子。

During this period he carried out extensive scientific research, particularly in marine biology.?

在這段時期，他進行了廣泛的科學研究，特別是在海洋生物學方面。

This was written up in a book misleadingly entitled The History of Animals.?

這被寫成了一本誤導性地叫做《動物志》的書。

It contains detailed, and mainly accurate, observations of the anatomy, diet, and reproductive systems of mammals, birds, reptiles, fish, and crustacea; observations which were quite without precedent and which were not superseded until the seventeenth century.?

它包含了對哺乳動物、鳥類、爬行動物、魚類和甲殼類的解剖、飲食和生殖系統(tǒng)的詳細而且主要準確的觀察；這些觀察是前所未有的，直到十七世紀才被超越。

Aristotle remained at Assos until the death of Hermias, executed in 341 by the King of Persia, to whom he had been treacherously betrayed.?

亞里士多德一直留在阿索斯，直到赫米亞斯在公元前341年被波斯國王處決，他被背叛地出賣給了波斯國王。

Aristotle saluted his memory in an Ode to Virtue which is his only surviving poem.?

亞里士多德用一首《贊美美德的頌歌》來紀念他的記憶，這是他唯一留存下來的詩歌。

After Hermias’ death he was invited to the Macedonian capital by Philip II as tutor to his son, the future Alexander the Great, who succeeded as king in 336.?

在赫米亞斯死后，他被菲利普二世邀請到馬其頓首都，擔任他的兒子——未來的亞歷山大大帝的家庭教師，他在公元前336年繼承了王位。

We have little solid information about Aristotle’s relation to his distinguished pupil, who in the course of ten years made himself master of an empire that stretched from the Danube to the Indus and included Libya and Egypt.?

我們對亞里士多德與他杰出的學生之間的關系知之甚少，他的學生在十年的時間里使自己成為了一個從多瑙河到印度河，包括利比亞和埃及在內的帝國的主人。

Ancient sources tell us that during his early campaigns Alexander arranged for a team of research assistants to send his tutor biological specimens from all parts of Greece and Asia Minor; but we can tell from Aristotle’s own writings that the relationship between the two cooled markedly as the conquering monarch grew ever more megalomaniac and finally proclaimed himself divine .?

古代的資料告訴我們，在他早期的戰(zhàn)役中，亞歷山大安排了一個研究助理團隊，從希臘和小亞細亞的各個地方給他的導師送去生物標本；但我們可以從亞里士多德自己的著作中看出，隨著征服者君主變得越來越妄自尊大，最后宣布自己是神，兩人之間的關系明顯冷淡了。

While Alexander was conquering Asia, Aristotle was back in Athens, where he established his own school in the Lyceum, just outside the city boundary.?

當亞歷山大在征服亞洲時，亞里士多德回到了雅典，在城市邊界外的呂克奧建立了自己的學校。

Here he built up a substantial library, and gathered around him a group of brilliant research students.?

在這里，他建立了一個龐大的圖書館，并聚集了一群杰出的研究生。

The Lyceum was not a private club like the Academy; many of the lectures were open to the general public, without fee.?

呂克奧不像學院那樣是一個私人俱樂部；許多講座對公眾開放，不收費。

Aristotle always acknowledged a great debt to Plato, whom on his death he described as the best and happiest of mortals ‘whom it is not right for evil men even to praise’.?

亞里士多德總是承認自己對柏拉圖有著巨大的虧欠，在他去世時，他描述柏拉圖是“最好最幸福的凡人，邪惡的人甚至沒有權利贊美他”。

His main philosophical writings show the influence of his master on almost every page.?

他的主要哲學著作幾乎每一頁都顯示出他的老師的影響。

But he was not an uncritical disciple, and in antiquity some called him an ungrateful foal, who had kicked his mother.?

但他不是一個不加批判的門徒，在古代，有些人稱他為一個踢了他的母親的忘恩負義的小馬。

Since the Renaissance it has been traditional to regard the Academy and the Lyceum as two opposite poles of philosophy.?

自從文藝復興以來，把學院和呂克奧看作是哲學的兩個對立極端已經成為傳統(tǒng)。

Plato, according to this tradition, was idealistic, Utopian, other-worldly; Aristotle was realistic, utilitarian, common-sensical.?

根據這個傳統(tǒng)，柏拉圖是理式主義的、烏托邦式的、超脫世俗的；亞里士多德是現(xiàn)實主義的、功利主義的、常識性的。

Thus in Raphael’s School of Athens, Plato, wearing the colours of the volatile elements air and fire, points heavenwards; Aristotle, clothed in watery blue and earthy green, has his feet firmly on the ground.?

因此，在拉斐爾的《雅典學院》中，柏拉圖穿著代表易變元素空氣和火的顏色，指向天空；亞里士多德穿著水藍色和土黃色的衣服，雙腳牢牢地站在地上。

‘Every man is born an Aristotelian or a Platonist,’ said S. T. Coleridge. ‘They are the two classes of men, besides which it is next to impossible to conceive a third.’?

S.T.柯勒律治說：“每個人生來都是亞里士多德派或柏拉圖派。除此之外，幾乎不可能想象出第三類人?！?/p>

In our own age W. B. Yeats pointed the contrast:?

在我們自己的時代，W.B.葉芝指出了這種對比：

Plato thought nature but a spume that plays?

Upon a ghostly paradigm of things;?

Solider Aristotle played the taws?

Upon the bottom of a king of kings.?

柏拉圖認為自然不過是水泡

被幽靈般的理式戲弄著，產生事物的千變萬化；

更務實的亞里士多德?lián)]舞著樺木條

會鞭打一位王中之王的屁股：

In fact, as we shall see, Aristotle took a large part of his philosophical agenda from Plato, and his teaching is more often a modification than a refutation of Plato’s doctrines.?

事實上，正如我們將要看到的，亞里士多德從柏拉圖那里借鑒了他哲學模式的很大一部分，他的教導更多地是對柏拉圖的教義的修改而不是反駁。

Modern historians of ideas were less perceptive than the many commentators in late antiquity who saw it as their duty to construct a harmonious concord between the two greatest philosophers of the ancient world.?

現(xiàn)代思想史學家的洞察力不如晚古代的許多評論家，他們認為他們的職責是在古代最偉大的兩位哲學家之間建立一種和諧的協(xié)調。

Alexander the Great died in 323.?

亞歷山大大帝于公元前323年去世。

Democratic Athens rejoiced, and once again it became an uncomfortable home for even an anti-imperialist Macedonian.?

民主的雅典歡欣鼓舞，它再次成為了一個即使是反帝國主義者的馬其頓人也感到不舒服的家園。

Saying that he did not wish the city which had executed Socrates ‘to sin twice against philosophy’, Aristotle escaped to Chalcis, on a nearby Greek island, where he died a year after Alexander.?

他亞里士多德說他不希望那個處死了蘇格拉底的城市“對哲學犯下兩次罪過”，他逃到了附近一個希臘島嶼上的卡爾基斯，在那里他在亞歷山大去世后一年死去。

Aristotle left his papers to Theophrastus, his successor as head of the Lyceum.?

亞里士多德把他的論文留給了塞奧弗拉斯托斯，他是呂克奧的繼任者。

They were enormous in volume and in scope, including writings on constitutional history and the history of sport and the theatre, and works of botany, zoology, biology, psychology, chemistry, meteorology, astronomy, and cosmology, as well as more strictly philosophical treatises of logic, metaphysics, ethics, aesthetics, political theory, theory of knowledge, philosophy of science, and the history of ideas.?

它們在數(shù)量和范圍上都是巨大的，包括關于憲法史、體育史和戲劇史的著作，以及植物學、動物學、生物學、心理學、化學、氣象學、天文學和宇宙學等方面的作品，以及更嚴格地說是關于邏輯、形而上學、倫理學、美學、政治理論、認識論、科學哲學和思想史等方面的哲學論文。

It was some centuries before these works were properly catalogued, and it has been calculated that four-fifths of what he wrote has been lost.?

這些作品在被正確地編目之前經過了幾個世紀，據估計，他寫的東西有五分之四已經失傳了。

What survives amounts to about one million words, twice the extent of the Platonic corpus.?

存留下來的大約有一百萬字，是柏拉圖著作的兩倍。

Most of this material appears to be in the form of notes for lectures, sometimes in more than one draft.

這些材料中的大部分似乎是以講座筆記的形式出現(xiàn)的，有時有不止一個草稿。

Aristotle’s style was admired in the ancient world; but the writings we possess, though packed with ideas and full of energy, lack the kind of polish which makes for easy reading.?

亞里士多德的風格在古代世界受到了贊賞；但我們擁有的著作，盡管充滿了思想和活力，卻缺乏使閱讀變得容易的那種潤色。

What has been delivered to us across the centuries are telegrams from Aristotle rather than epistles.?

傳遞給我們的是來自亞里士多德的電報，而不是書信。

The Foundation of Logic

邏輯的基礎

Many of the sciences to which Aristotle contributed were disciplines which he himself founded.?

亞里士多德所貢獻的許多科學都是他自己創(chuàng)立的學科。

He makes the claim explicit only in one case: that of logic.?

他只在一個情況下明確地提出了這個主張：那就是邏輯。

At the end of one of his logical works he wrote:?

在他的一個邏輯著作的結尾，他寫道：

In the case of rhetoric there were many old writings to draw upon, but in the case of logic we had absolutely nothing at all to mention until we had spent much time in laborious research.?

在修辭學的情況下，有許多古老的著作可以借鑒，但在邏輯的情況下，我們一點也沒有可提及的東西，直到我們花了很多時間進行艱苦的研究。

Aristotle’s principal logical investigations concerned relations between sentences which make statements.?

亞里士多德主要的邏輯研究涉及到做出陳述的句子之間的關系。

Which of them are consistent or inconsistent with each other??

它們中哪些是一致或不一致的？

When we have one or more true statements, what further truths can be inferred from them by reasoning alone??

當我們有一個或多個真實的陳述時，我們可以通過單純的推理從中推斷出什么更深刻的真理？

These questions are answered in his Prior Analytics.?

這些問題在他的《前分析篇》中得到了回答。

Unlike Plato, Aristotle does not take a simple noun–verb sentence such as ‘Theaetetus is sitting’ as the basic element of logical structure.?

不像柏拉圖，亞里士多德不把像‘泰阿泰德在坐著’這樣的簡單名詞-動詞句子作為邏輯結構的基本元素。

He is much more interested in classifying sentences beginning with ‘all’ ‘no’ and ‘some’, and evaluating inferences between them.?

他更感興趣的是對以‘所有’‘沒有’和‘一些’開頭的句子進行分類，并評估它們之間的推理。

Consider the following two inferences.?

(1) All Greeks are Europeans?

Some Greeks are male?

Therefore, some Europeans are male. and?

(2) All cows are mammals?

Some mammals are quadrupeds?

Therefore, all cows are quadrupeds.?

考慮以下兩個推理。

(1) 所有希臘人都是歐洲人?

一些希臘人是男性?

因此，一些歐洲人是男性。 和?

(2) 所有牛都是哺乳動物?

一些哺乳動物是四足動物?

因此，所有牛都是四足動物。

These two inferences have a lot in common with each other. They are both inferences which draw a conclusion from a pair of premisses. In each inference a keyword which appears in the grammatical subject of the conclusion appears in one of the premisses, and a keyword which appears in the grammatical predicate of the conclusion appears in the other premiss. Aristotle devoted much attention to inferences displaying this feature, which are nowadays called ‘syllogisms’ after the Greek word which he used for them. The branch of logic which studies the validity of inferences of this kind, which was initiated by Aristotle, is called ‘syllogistic’.?

這兩個推理有很多共同之處。它們都是從一對前提中得出結論的推理。在每個推理中，出現(xiàn)在結論的語法主語中的一個關鍵詞出現(xiàn)在其中一個前提中，而出現(xiàn)在結論的語法謂語中的一個關鍵詞出現(xiàn)在另一個前提中。亞里士多德對顯示這種特征的推理給予了很多關注，這些推理現(xiàn)在被稱為‘三段論’，這是他用來指代它們的希臘詞。研究這種推理的有效性的邏輯分支，由亞里士多德發(fā)起，被稱為‘三段論學’。

A valid inference is an inference of a form which will never lead from true premisses to a false conclusion. Of the two inferences set out above, the first is valid and the second is invalid. It is true that in each of the cases given the premisses are true and the conclusion is true. One cannot fault the second inference on the ground that the sentences occurring in it are false. What one can fault is the ‘therefore’: the conclusion may be true, but it does not follow from the premisses.?

一個有效的推理是一種形式的推理，它永遠不會從真實的前提導致一個錯誤的結論。在上面列出的兩個推理中，第一個是有效的，第二個是無效的。事實上，在給出的每個情況中，前提都是真的，結論也是真的。人們不能以句子中出現(xiàn)的錯誤為理由來指責第二個推理。人們可以指責的是‘因此’：結論可能是真的，但它并不是由前提推出來的。

We can bring this out by constructing a parallel inference which leads from true premisses to a false conclusion. For instance:?

(3) All whales are mammals?

Some mammals are land-animals?

Therefore, all whales are land-animals.?

我們可以通過構造一個從真實的前提導致錯誤的結論的平行推理來說明這一點。例如：

(3) 所有鯨魚都是哺乳動物?

一些哺乳動物是陸生動物?

因此，所有鯨魚都是陸生動物。

The inference is of the same form as inference?

(2), as can be brought out by exhibiting the structure of the inference by schematic letters.?

(4) All As are Bs?

Some Bs are Cs?

Therefore all As are Cs.?

這個推理與推理具有相同的形式

(2)可以通過用示意字母展示推理的結構來顯示出來。?

(4) 所有A都是B?

一些B是C?

因此所有A都是C。

Because inference (3) leads from true premisses to a false conclusion, we can see that the argument-form of (4) cannot be relied upon. Hence, inference (2), though its conclusion is in fact true, is not a valid inference.?

因為推理(3)從真實的前提導致了錯誤的結論，我們可以看出(4)的論證形式是不可靠的。因此，推理(2)，盡管它的結論事實上是真的，但不是一個有效的推理。

Logic could never have proceeded past its first steps without schematic letters, and their use is something now taken absolutely for granted; but it was Aristotle who first began to use them, and his invention was as important to logic as the invention of algebra was to mathematics.?

如果沒有示意字母，邏輯就永遠無法超越它的第一步，它們的使用現(xiàn)在被完全視為理所當然；但最先開始使用它們的是亞里士多德，他的發(fā)明對邏輯來說就像代數(shù)對數(shù)學一樣重要。

One way to define logic is to say that it is the discipline which sorts out good inferences from bad.?

定義邏輯的一種方法是說，它是一門從壞的推理中分辨出好的推理的學科。

Aristotle examines all the possible forms of syllogistic inference and frames a set of principles which would sort out good syllogisms from bad syllogisms.?

亞里士多德檢查了所有可能的三段論推理形式，并制定了一套原則，可以從壞的三段論中分辨出好的三段論。

He begins by classifying the individual sentences or propositions in the premisses.?

他首先對前提中的單個句子或命題進行分類。

Ones beginning ‘all’ are universal propositions; ones beginning ‘some’ are particular propositions.?

以‘所有’開頭的是普遍命題；以‘一些’開頭的是特殊命題。

Ones containing ‘not’ are negative propositions; others are affirmative propositions.?

包含‘不’的是否定命題；其他的是肯定命題。

Aristotle then uses these classifications to draw up rules to evaluate inferences.?

然后，亞里士多德用這些分類來制定評估推理的規(guī)則。

For instance, if a syllogism is to be valid, at least one premiss must be affirmative, at least one premiss must be universal, and if either premiss is negative the conclusion must be negative.?

例如，如果一個三段論要有效，至少一個前提必須是肯定的，至少一個前提必須是普遍的，如果任何一個前提是否定的，結論必須是否定的。

Aristotle’s rules, in their totality, are sufficient to validate sound syllogisms and eliminate invalid ones.?

亞里士多德的規(guī)則，在它們的總體上，足以驗證正確的三段論并消除無效的三段論。

They are sufficient, for instance, to accept inference (1) and reject inference (2).?

它們足以接受推理(1)并拒絕推理(2)。

Aristotle believed that his syllogistic was sufficient to deal with every possible valid inference.?

亞里士多德相信他的三段論學足以處理每一個可能的有效推理。

This was an error; in fact, the system, though complete in itself, was only a fragment of logic.?

這是一個錯誤；事實上，這個系統(tǒng)，雖然本身是完整的，但只是邏輯的一個片段。

It had two weaknesses.?

它有兩個弱點。

First, it did not deal with inferences depending not on words like ‘all’ and ‘some’, which attach to nouns, but on words like ‘if ’ and ‘then’, which link sentences.?

首先，它沒有處理不依賴于像‘所有’和‘一些’這樣附著于名詞的詞，而依賴于像‘如果’和‘那么’這樣連接句子的詞的推理。

It was some centuries later before anyone formalized patterns of inference such as ‘If it is not day, it is night; but it is not day; therefore it is night’.?

直到幾個世紀之后，才有人將像‘如果不是白天，就是黑夜；但不是白天；因此是黑夜’這樣的推理模式形式化。

Secondly, even within its own field, Aristotle’s logic could not cope with inferences in which words like ‘all’ or ‘some’ (or ‘every’ and ‘any’) occurred not in the subject place but somewhere in the grammatical predicate.?

其次，在它自己的領域內，亞里士多德的邏輯也無法處理那些像‘所有’或‘一些’（或‘每一個’和‘任何一個’）這樣的詞不出現(xiàn)在主語位置而出現(xiàn)在語法謂語某個地方的推理。

The rules would not permit one to determine, for instance, the validity of inferences containing premisses such as ‘every schoolchild knows some dates’ or ‘some people hate all policemen’.?

規(guī)則不允許人們確定，例如，包含像‘每個學生都知道一些日期’或‘一些人恨所有的警察’這樣的前提的推理的有效性。

It was not until twenty-two centuries after Aristotle’s death that this gap was filled.?

直到亞里士多德死后二十二個世紀，這個空白才被填補。

Logic is used in all the various sciences which Aristotle studied; perhaps it is not so much a science itself as an instrument or tool of the sciences.?

邏輯被用于亞里士多德所研究的所有各種科學；也許它本身不是一門科學，而是一種科學的工具或工具。

That was the view taken of Aristotle’s logical works by his successors, who called them the ‘Organon’ after the Greek word for tool.?

這是亞里士多德的繼承者對他的邏輯著作所持的觀點，他們用希臘語中表示工具的詞‘Organon’（工具論）來稱呼它們。

The Posterior Analytics tells us how logic functions in the sciences.?

《后分析篇》告訴我們邏輯在科學中是如何運作的。

Those who learnt Euclidean geometry at school will recall how many geometrical truths, or theorems, were derived by deductive reasoning from a small initial set of other truths called axioms.?

那些在學校學過歐幾里得幾何的人會回想起有多少幾何真理或定理是通過從一小組其他被稱為公理的真理開始的演繹推理得出的。

Though Euclid himself was not born until late in Aristotle’s life, this axiomatic method was already familiar to geometricians, and Aristotle believed it to be very widely applicable.?

盡管歐幾里得本人直到亞里士多德晚年才出生，但這種公理化方法已經為幾何學家所熟知，亞里士多德認為它具有非常廣泛的適用性。

Logic provided the rules for the derivation of theorems from axioms, and each science would have its own special set of axioms.?

邏輯提供了從公理推導定理的規(guī)則，每一門科學都有自己特殊的公理集合。

The sciences could be ordered in hierarchies, with sciences lower down a hierarchy treating as axioms propositions which might be theorems of a higher science.?

科學可以按照層次來排序，層次較低的科學把可能是層次較高的科學定理的命題作為公理來處理。

If we take ‘science’ in a broad sense, Aristotle says, there are three kinds of sciences: productive, practical, and theoretical.?

如果我們廣義地理解‘科學’，亞里士多德說，有三種科學：創(chuàng)造性的、實踐性的和理論性的。

Productive sciences include engineering and architecture, and also disciplines such as rhetoric and playwriting whose products are less concrete.?

創(chuàng)造性科學包括工程和建筑，以及像修辭和劇本創(chuàng)作這樣產品不太具體的學科。

Practical sciences are ones which guide behaviour, most notably ethics and politics.?

實踐性科學是指導行為的科學，最著名的是倫理學和政治學。

Theoretical sciences are those which have no product and no practical goal, but pursue truth for its own sake.?

理論性科學是那些沒有產品和實踐目標，而是為了真理本身而追求真理的科學。

Theoretical science, in its turn, is threefold.?

理論科學，反過來說，也是三重的。

Aristotle names the three divisions ‘Physics, Mathematics, Theology’; but in this classification only mathematics is what it seems to be.?

亞里士多德把這三個部分命名為‘物理、數(shù)學、神學’；但在這個分類中，只有數(shù)學是它看起來的樣子。

‘Physics’ means natural philosophy or the study of nature ( physis); it includes, in addition to the disciplines which we would nowadays think of as part of physics, chemistry and biology plus animal and human psychology.?

‘物理’意味著自然哲學或對自然（physis）的研究；它除了包括我們現(xiàn)在認為是物理部分的學科外，還包括化學、生物學以及動物和人類心理學。

‘Theology’ is, for Aristotle, the study of entities above and superior to human beings, that is to say, the starry skies as well as whatever divinities may inhabit heaven.?

對于亞里士多德來說，‘神學’是對高于和優(yōu)于人類的實體的研究，也就是說，星空以及可能居住在天堂的任何神靈。

‘Metaphysics’ is not a name which occurs in Aristotle; indeed the word means simply ‘after physics’ and it was coined to refer to those works of his own which were catalogued after his Physics.

‘形而上學’不是亞里士多德中出現(xiàn)的一個名字；事實上，這個詞只是簡單地意味著‘在物理之后’，它是為了指代那些在他的《物理學》之后被編目的他自己的作品而創(chuàng)造的。

But much of what Aristotle wrote would nowadays naturally be described as metaphysics; and he did have his own name for the discipline, as we shall see later.?

但亞里士多德寫的很多東西現(xiàn)在自然會被描述為形而上學；而且他確實有自己的名字來稱呼這門學科，我們稍后會看到。

The Theory of Drama?

戲劇理論

In the realm of productive sciences, Aristotle wrote two works: the Rhetoric and the Poetics, designed to assist barristers and playwrights in their respective tasks.

在創(chuàng)造性科學的領域，亞里士多德寫了兩部作品：《修辭學》和《詩學》，旨在幫助律師和劇作家完成各自的任務。

The Rhetoric has interested modern philosophers chiefly on account of the detailed and sensitive examination, in the second book, of the human emotions on which the orator has to play.?

《修辭學》主要因為在第二卷中對演說者必須利用的人類情感進行了詳細而敏感的考察，而引起了現(xiàn)代哲學家的興趣。

The Poetics, throughout history, has interested a much wider audience.?

《詩學》，在歷史上，吸引了更廣泛的讀者。

Only its first book survives, a treatment of epic and tragic poetry.?

只有它的第一卷保存下來，是對史詩和悲劇詩歌的論述。

The second book, on comedy, is lost.?

第二卷，關于喜劇的，已經失傳了。

Umberto Eco, in The Name of the Rose, wove a dramatic fiction around its imagined survival and then destruction in a medieval abbey.?

艾柯，在《玫瑰之名》中，圍繞著它想象中的幸存和在一個中世紀修道院中的毀滅編織了一個戲劇性的小說。

The surviving first book deals principally with the nature of tragic drama.?

保存下來的第一卷主要討論了悲劇戲劇的本質。

Six things, Aristotle says, are necessary for a tragedy: plot, character, diction, thought, spectacle, and melody.?

亞里士多德說，悲劇需要六個要素：情節(jié)、人物、言辭、思想、場面和旋律。

The elements appear to be listed in order of importance.?

這些要素似乎是按照重要性的順序列出來的。

The melodies sung by the choruses in a Greek drama, and the setting of the stage by the director, are, he says, no more than pleasurable accessories: what is really great in tragedy can be appreciated by listening to an unadorned reading of the text no less than by watching the play on the stage.?

他說，在希臘戲劇中，合唱團所唱的旋律，以及導演對舞臺的布置，不過是令人愉快的附屬品：悲劇真正偉大的地方可以通過聽一段沒有裝飾的文本朗讀來欣賞，不亞于在舞臺上觀看戲劇。

Thought and diction are more important: it is the thoughts expressed by the characters that arouse emotion in the hearer, and if they are to do so successfully they must be presented convincingly by the actors.?

思想和言辭更為重要：是人物所表達的思想引起了聽者的情感，如果他們要成功地做到這一點，他們必須被演員以令人信服的方式呈現(xiàn)出來。

But it is character and plot which really bring out the genius of a tragic poet.?

但真正體現(xiàn)出悲劇詩人天才的是人物和情節(jié)。

The main character, or tragic hero, must be neither supremely good nor extremely bad: he should be a person of rank who is basically good, but comes to grief through some great error.?

主角或悲劇英雄不能太好也不能太壞：他應該是一個基本上善良的高貴人物，但因為一些后果嚴重的錯誤而陷入悲慘。

Every one of the dramatis personae should possess some good features, and all should act consistently.?

每一個戲劇人物都應該具有一些好的特征，而且都應該行為一致。

What they do should the whole plot turns.?

他們所做的應該是整個情節(jié)的轉折點。

Typically, the story will get ever more complicated up to a turning-point in the story, which Aristotle calls a ‘reversal’ ( peripeteia).?

通常，故事會變得越來越復雜，直到故事的一個轉折點，亞里士多德稱之為‘反轉’（peripeteia）。

That is the moment at which the apparently fortunate hero falls to disaster, perhaps through a ‘revelation’ ( anagnorisis), the discovery of some crucial but hitherto unknown piece of information.?

那是一個看似幸運的英雄陷入災難的時刻，也許是通過一個‘啟示’（anagnorisis），發(fā)現(xiàn)了一些至關重要但迄今未知的信息。

After the reversal comes the dénouement, in which the complications earlier introduced are gradually unravelled.?

在逆轉之后，就是結局，其中之前引入的復雜情節(jié)逐漸被解開。

Aristotle says that the story must arouse pity and fear: that is the whole point of tragedy.?

亞里士多德說，故事必須引起憐憫和恐懼：這就是悲劇的全部意義。

It is most likely to do so if it shows people as the victims of hatred and murder where they could most expect to be loved and cherished.?

如果它顯示出人們在最希望被愛和珍惜的地方成為了仇恨和謀殺的受害者，那么它最有可能做到這一點。

That is why so many tragedies concern feuds within a single family.?

這就是為什么這么多的悲劇涉及到一個家庭內部的爭斗。

All these observations are illustrated by constant reference to actual Greek plays; the one most often cited is Sophocles’ tragedy of King Oedipus.?

所有這些觀察都通過不斷地引用實際的希臘戲劇來說明；最常被引用的一個是索福克勒斯的《俄狄浦斯國王》。

Oedipus, at the beginning of the play, enjoys reputation and prosperity.?

在戲劇開始時，俄狄浦斯享有聲譽和繁榮。

But he has the fatal flaw of impetuosity, which has led him to kill a stranger in a scuffle, and marry a bride without sufficient inquiry into her origins.?

但他有一個致命的缺點，那就是沖動，這導致他在一場爭斗中殺死了一個陌生人，并娶了一個沒有充分調查她出身的新娘。

The ‘revelation’ that the man was his father and the woman his mother leads to the ‘reversal’ of his fortune, as he is banished from his kingdom and blinds himself in shame and remorse.?

‘啟示’這個男人是他的父親，這個女人是他的母親，導致了他命運的‘反轉’，因為他被放逐出他的王國，并在羞愧和悔恨中弄瞎了自己。

Why should we seek to arouse pity and fear, which we are told is the purpose of tragedy??

為什么我們應該尋求激起憐憫和恐懼，這是我們被告知的悲劇的目的？

‘In order to purify our emotions’ is Aristotle’s answer.?

‘為了凈化我們的情感’是亞里士多德的回答。

No one is quite sure what he meant by this: but most probably the point is that watching tragedy helps us to put our own sorrows and worries into due proportion.?

沒有人完全確定他這是什么意思：但最有可能的是，觀看悲劇可以幫助我們把自己的悲哀和憂慮放在適當?shù)谋壤小?/p>

Aristotle’s account of tragedy enables him to answer Plato’s complaint that artists, poets, and playwrights were only imitators of everyday life, which was itself only an imitation of the real world of the Ideas.?

亞里士多德對悲劇的論述使他能夠回應柏拉圖的抱怨，即藝術家、詩人和劇作家只是日常生活的模仿者，而日常生活本身只是理念世界的模仿。

Tragedy, he says, is in fact closer to the ideal than history is.?

他說，悲劇事實上比歷史更接近理式。

Much of what happens to people in everyday life is a matter of sheer accident: only in fiction can we see the working out of character and action into their natural consequences.?

日常生活中發(fā)生在人們身上的很多事情都是純粹的偶然：只有在虛構中，我們才能看到性格和行為按照它們自然的結果發(fā)展。

‘Hence poetry is more philosophical and more important than history; for poetry tells us of the universal, while history tells us of the individual.’?

‘因此，詩歌比歷史更哲學和更重要；因為詩歌告訴我們普遍的東西，而歷史告訴我們個別的東西?！?/p>

Moral Philosophy: Virtue and Happiness?

道德哲學：美德和幸福

Aristotle’s contribution to the practical sciences was made by his writings on moral philosophy and political theory.?

亞里士多德對實踐科學的貢獻是通過他關于道德哲學和政治理論的著作來實現(xiàn)的。

We possess his moral philosophy in three different versions, two of them his own notes for lecturing, and the third probably notes of his lectures made by a pupil.?

我們擁有他道德哲學的三個不同版本，其中兩個是他自己講課用的筆記，第三個可能是他一個學生做的他講課的筆記。

The dating of the two authentic treatises, the Eudemian and Nicomachean Ethics, is a matter of controversy; most scholars, for no good reason, regard the Eudemian Ethics as a youthful and inferior work.?

兩部真實著作，《歐德米安倫理學》和《尼各馬可倫理學》的年代是一個有爭議的問題；大多數(shù)學者，沒有充分的理由，認為《歐德米安倫理學》是一部青年時期和低劣的作品。

There is much better reason for the consensus that the third work, the Magna Moralia, is not from Aristotle’s own hand.?

對于第三部作品，《the Magna Moralia》，不是亞里士多德自己寫的這一共識，有很充分的證據。

Whatever its intrinsic merits, the Eudemian Ethics has never been studied by more than a handful of scholars; it is the Nicomachean Ethics which, since the beginning of the Christian era, has been regarded as the Ethics of Aristotle, and it is from there that I will take my account of his moral philosophy.?

不管它的內在價值如何，《歐德米安倫理學》從來沒有被多于少數(shù)學者研究過；《尼各馬可倫理學》自從基督教時代開始，就被視為亞里士多德的倫理學，我將從那里開始敘述他的道德哲學。

Since ethics is a practical science, the treatise concerns the nature and purpose of human action.?

由于倫理學是一門實踐科學，這部著作涉及到人類行為的本質和目的。

When we ask for the why and wherefore of any human action, we can be told that it is to be done for the sake of something else; we can ask in turn for the why and wherefore of that something else; sooner or later we reach a point where there is no further answer to the question.?

當我們詢問任何人類行為的原因和目的時，我們可以被告知它是為了別的什么而做的；我們可以反過來詢問那個別的什么的原因和目的；遲早我們會達到一個沒有進一步答案的問題的點。

This is the goal or end of an action, and it is the worthwhileness of this end of an action which makes the actions leading to it themselves worthwhile.?

這就是行為的目標或終點，而正是這個行為終點的有價值性使得導致它的行為本身有價值。

The best of all human goods would be a good which appeared at the origin of every chain of practical reasoning: that would be an absolute good, an independent good on which the goodness of every other human good depended, as the goodness of health-producing drugs or regimes depends on the goodness of health itself.?

所有人類善中最好的善將是一個出現(xiàn)在每一條實踐推理鏈的起源處的善：那將是一個絕對善，一個獨立善，每一個其他人類善的善都依賴于它，就像產生健康的藥物或制度的善依賴于健康本身的善一樣。

It is this supreme good that is the subject matter of the science of ethics, which is the supreme practical science.?

這個至高善就是倫理學這門最高實踐科學所研究的主題。

The Nicomachean Ethics covers much the same ground as Plato’s Republic; with some exaggeration one could say that Aristotle’s moral philosophy is Plato’s moral philosophy with the Theory of Ideas stripped out.?

《尼各馬可倫理學》涵蓋了與柏拉圖的《理想國》相同的領域；有些夸張地說，亞里士多德的道德哲學是柏拉圖的道德哲學，只是剝去了理型論。

Right at the beginning, Aristotle explains why the supreme good of which ethics treats cannot be identified with the Idea of the Good.?

在一開始，亞里士多德就解釋了倫理學所論述的至高善為什么不能與善的理念相同。

Plato was his friend, he says, but truth is a greater friend, and truth obliges him to bring forward no less than eight arguments to show the incoherence of this part of the Theory of Ideas.?

他說，柏拉圖是他的朋友，但真理是更重要的朋友，真理迫使他提出不少于八個論據來揭示理式論這一部分的不連貫性。

Most of the arguments are highly technical, and bear the marks of esoteric discussions in the Academy: but perhaps the clinching one is that ethics is a practical science, about what is within human power to achieve, whereas an everlasting and unchanging Idea of the Good could only be of theoretical interest.?

大多數(shù)論據都是高度技術性的，并帶有學園內部討論的痕跡：但也許最有力的一個是，倫理學是一門實踐科學，關于人類力所能及的事情，而一個永恒不變的善的理式只能是理論上的興趣。

Aristotle agrees, however, with the central contention of the Republic that there is an intimate connection between living virtuously and living happily, and that morality is to the soul what health is to the body.?

然而，亞里士多德同意《理想國》的中心論點，即有德地生活和幸福地生活之間存在著密切的聯(lián)系，道德對于靈魂就像健康對于身體一樣。

Indeed it is happiness ( eudaimonia) which he puts in place of the Idea of the Good as the supreme good with which ethics is concerned.?

事實上，幸福（eudaimonia）是他用來代替?zhèn)惱韺W所關注的至高善的善的理式的。

What then is happiness??

那么，幸福是什么呢？

To elucidate this we have to consider the function or characteristic activity ( ergon) of man. 為了闡明這一點，我們必須考慮人的功能或特征活動（ergon）。

Man must have a function, because particular types of men (e.g. sculptors) do, and parts and organs of human beings do.?

人必須有一個功能，因為特定類型的人（例如雕塑家）有，而且人類的部分和器官也有。

What is this function??

這個功能是什么？

Not life, not at least the life of growth and nourishment, for this is shared by plants, nor the life of the senses, for this is shared by animals.?

不是生命，至少不是生長和營養(yǎng)的生命，因為這是植物所共有的，也不是感官的生命，因為這是動物所共有的。

It must be a life of reason concerned with action: the activity of soul in accordance with reason.?

它必須是一個與行動有關的理性生活：按照理性的靈魂活動。

So human good will be good human functioning: namely, Aristotle says, ‘activity of soul in accordance with virtue, and if there are several virtues, in accordance with the best and most perfect’.?

所以人類善將是良好的人類功能：也就是說，亞里士多德說，‘按照美德的靈魂活動，如果有多種美德，那就按照最好和最完美的美德?！?/p>

Well, how many virtues are there, and what is the best of them??

那么，有多少種美德，哪一種是最好的？

Aristotle starts to answer the first question at the end of the first book of the Nicomachean Ethics; it takes nine further books to answer the second.?

亞里士多德在《尼各馬可倫理學》第一卷的結尾開始回答第一個問題；他花了另外九卷來回答第二個問題。

Like Plato, Aristotle begins by analysing the structure of the soul, and he offers his own division into three elements: a vegetable element, an appetitive element, and a rational element.?

像柏拉圖一樣，亞里士多德首先分析了靈魂的結構，并提出了他自己將其分為三個要素：植物要素、欲望要素和理性要素。

The vegetable element is responsible for nourishment and growth; it is irrelevant to ethics.?

植物要素負責營養(yǎng)和生長；它與倫理無關。

The second element in the soul is one which, unlike the vegetable part, is under the control of reason.?

靈魂中的第二個要素是一個與植物部分不同的要素，它受理性的控制。

It is the part of the soul for desire and passion, corresponding to appetite and temper in the Platonic tripartite soul.?

它是靈魂中負責欲望和激情的部分，相當于柏拉圖的三部分靈魂中的欲望和氣質。

This part of the soul has its own virtues: the moral virtues, such as courage, temperance, and liberality.?

這個靈魂的部分有自己的美德：道德美德，如勇氣、節(jié)制和慷慨。

The rational part of the soul, later to be itself subdivided, is the seat of the intellectual virtues like wisdom and understanding.?

靈魂的理性部分，后來也被細分，是智慧和理解等智力美德的所在。

Books II to V of the Ethics deal with the moral virtues, first in general and then individually.?

《倫理學》的第二到第五卷討論了道德美德，先是一般地，然后是個別地。

Moral virtues are not innate, nor are they simply passed on by a teacher to a pupil; they are acquired by practice and lost by disuse.?

道德美德不是天生的，也不是簡單地由老師傳給學生的；它們是通過實踐獲得的，也是通過不用而失去的。

A moral virtue, Aristotle says, is not a faculty (like intelligence or memory) nor a passion (like a rush of anger or a tug of pity).?

亞里士多德說，道德美德不是一種能力（像智力或記憶力）也不是一種激情（像一陣怒火或一股憐憫）。

Neither the simple possession of faculties nor the simple occurrence of passions make people good or bad, praiseworthy or blameworthy.?

單純擁有能力或單純發(fā)生激情并不能使人們變得好或壞，值得贊揚或責備。

What makes a man a good man is the abiding state of his soul; or, as we would more naturally say in English, the state of his character.

使一個人成為一個好人的是他靈魂的持久狀態(tài)；或者，正如我們在英語中更自然地說的，他性格的狀態(tài)。

A moral virtue is a state of character which makes a person choose well and act well.?

道德美德是一種性格狀態(tài)，它使一個人選擇得好并行動得好。

Choosing well is a matter of choosing a good way of life; acting well consists in avoiding excess and defect in particular kinds of action.?

選擇得好是選擇一種好的生活方式的問題；行動得好在于避免特定類型的行為中的過度和缺陷。

If you are to be virtuous you must, for instance, avoid eating and drinking too much; you must also avoid eating and drinking too little.?

如果你要有美德，你必須，例如，避免吃喝過多；你也必須避免吃喝過少。

In your intercourse with others, you may go wrong by talking too much, or by talking too little; by being too solemn or too frivolous; by being too trusting, or not trusting enough.?

在你與他人的交往中，你可能會因為說話太多或太少而出錯；因為太嚴肅或太輕浮而出錯；因為太信任或不夠信任而出錯。

Virtue, Aristotle says, chooses the mean or middle ground between excess and defect: the virtuous man eats and drinks the right amount, talks the right amount and so on.?

亞里士多德說，美德選擇了過度和缺陷之間的中庸或中間地帶：有美德的人吃喝適量，說話適量等等。

Such is Aristotle’s celebrated doctrine of the mean.

?這就是亞里士多德著名的中庸之道。

It is often mocked because it is often misunderstood.?

它經常被嘲笑，因為它經常被誤解。

Rightly understood, it is a fine piece of conceptual analysis.?

正確理解的話，它是一篇精彩的概念分析。

Aristotle is not praising a golden mediocrity, nor is he encouraging us to stay in the middle of the herd. 亞里士多德不是在贊揚一種金子般的平庸，也不是在鼓勵我們留在群體的中間。

What constitutes the right amount of something, he says expressly, may differ from person to person, in the way that the right amount of food for an Olympic champion differs from the right amount of food for a novice athlete.?

他明確地說，某件事物的適量可能因人而異，就像奧運冠軍所需的食物量與新手運動員所需的食物量不同一樣。

The doctrine of the mean is not meant as a recipe for correct living: we have to find out for ourselves what is the right amount in each case.?

中庸之道并不是正確生活的秘訣：我們必須自己找出每種情況下的適量。

But we do so by learning to avoid excess and defect; as, nowadays, we learn to steer a car along the correct part of the road by mastering our initial swerves towards the kerb and towards the oncoming traffic.?

但我們是通過學習避免過度和缺陷來做到這一點的；就像現(xiàn)在，我們通過掌握我們最初向路邊和迎面而來的交通偏離的方式，學會沿著道路的正確部分駕駛汽車一樣。

Once we have learnt, by whatever means, the right amount of some kind of action – whether it is the right length of an after-dinner speech, or the right proportion of one’s income to give to charity – then, Aristotle says, we have ‘the right prescription’ ( orthos logos) in our mind.?

一旦我們通過任何方式學會了某種行為的適量——無論是飯后演講的合適長度，還是給慈善機構捐款的合適比例——那么，亞里士多德說，我們就有了‘正確的處方’（orthos logos）在我們的心中。

Virtue is the state which enables us to act in accordance with the right prescription.?

美德是使我們能夠按照正確處方行動的狀態(tài)。

Virtue concerns not only actions, but also passions.?

美德不僅關乎行為，也關乎情感。

We can have too many fears, and we can have too few fears; we can be excessively concerned with sex or insufficiently interested in it.

?我們可能有太多的恐懼，也可能有太少的恐懼；我們可能對性過分關注，也可能對性興趣不足。

The virtuous person is fearless when appropriate, and fearful when appropriate, and is neither lustful nor frigid.?

有美德的人在適當時無所畏懼，在適當時恐懼，并且既不好色也不冷淡。

Virtue is concerned with the mean of passion as well as the mean of action.?

美德關乎情感和行為的中庸。

The virtues, besides being concerned with means of action and passion, are themselves means, in the sense that they occupy a middle ground between two contrary vices.?

美德除了關乎行為和情感的中庸之外，本身也是中庸，因為它們占據了兩個相反的惡習之間的中間地帶。

Thus generosity is a mean between prodigality and miserliness; courage is a mean between cowardice and rashness.?

因此，慷慨是浪費和吝嗇之間的中庸；勇氣是膽怯和魯莽之間的中庸。

But virtues do not admit of the mean in the way that actions do: there cannot be too much of a virtue.?

但美德不像行為那樣容許中庸：美德不能過多。

If we say seriously that someone is over-generous, we mean that he has crossed the boundary between the virtue of generosity and the vice of prodigality.?

如果我們認真地說某人太慷慨了，我們的意思是他已經越過了慷慨的美德和浪費的惡習之間的界限。

The mayor who said that he did his best to walk the narrow path between partiality and impartiality had misunderstood Aristotle’s doctrine.?

那位說他盡力走在偏袒和公正之間的狹窄道路上的市長，誤解了亞里士多德的學說。

While all moral virtues are means, and concerned with means, not all actions and passions, Aristotle says, are the kinds of things that can have means.?

亞里士多德說，雖然所有的道德美德都是中庸，也關乎中庸，但并不是所有的行為和情感都是可以有中庸的東西。

He gives as examples of excluded actions murder and adultery: we could never justly compain that somebody had committed too few murders, and there is no such thing as committing adultery with the right person at the right time in the right way.?

他舉了一些被排除在外的行為作為例子，如謀殺和通奸：我們永遠不能公正地抱怨某人殺人太少，也沒有這樣一種事情，就是在正確的時間、正確的方式與正確的人通奸。

Among excluded passions he lists envy and spite: any amount of these sentiments is too much.

在被排除在外的情感中，他列舉了嫉妒和怨恨：這些情緒任何程度都太多了。

Aristotle’s account of virtue as a mean often strikes people as a set of truisms, devoid of moral import.?

亞里士多德對美德作為中庸的論述經常讓人覺得是一套老生常談，沒有道德意義。

On the contrary, his doctrine sets him in conflict with several highly influential moral systems.?

相反，他的學說使他與幾個非常有影響力的道德體系發(fā)生了沖突。

Many people nowadays, for instance, accept a utilitarian viewpoint from which there is no class of actions which are ruled out in advance; the morality of each action is to be judged by its consequences.?

例如，現(xiàn)在許多人接受一種功利主義的觀點，從這個觀點來看，沒有一類行為是事先被排除在外的；每個行為的道德性要以其后果來判斷。

These people would oppose Aristotle’s exclusions from the application of the mean; for them there can, in the appropriate circumstances, be the right amount of adultery or murder.?

這些人會反對亞里士多德對中庸的應用所做的排除；對他們來說，在適當?shù)那闆r下，通奸或謀殺可以有適量。

On the other hand, some ascetic religious systems have ruled out whole classes of actions to which Aristotle applied the mean: for them any enjoyment of sex, or any eating of meat, is wrong, and there could be no right amount of such actions.?

另一方面，一些禁欲的宗教體系排除了亞里士多德應用中庸的整個類別的行為：對他們來說，任何性的享受，或者任何吃肉，都是錯誤的，這些行為沒有適量。

We might say that from Aristotle’s point of view, the utilitarians are guilty of excess in the application of the doctrine of the mean: they apply it to too many kinds of action.?

我們可以說，從亞里士多德的角度來看，功利主義者在應用中庸之道時有過度之嫌：他們把它應用到太多種類的行為上。

The ascetics, on the contrary, are guilty of defect in its application; they apply it to too few kinds of action.?

相反，禁欲者在應用中庸之道時有缺陷之嫌；他們把它應用到太少種類的行為上。

In being neither innate nor wholly taught, but acquired by a kind of training, and in being concerned with a mean of action, moral virtues resemble skills like the ability to play the harp or the practice of medicine.?

在既不是天生的也不是完全教授的，而是通過一種訓練獲得的，并且關注行為的中庸，道德美德類似于像彈奏豎琴或醫(yī)學實踐這樣的技能。

Socrates and Plato constantly emphasized these similarities.?

蘇格拉底和柏拉圖不斷地強調這些相似之處。

They did so over much in Aristotle’s view, and he is at pains to emphasize the differences between skills and virtues.?

在亞里士多德看來，他們這樣做過于夸張了，他費力地強調了技能和美德之間的差異。

If someone plays the harp beautifully, or effects a successful cure, it makes no difference to the evaluation of their skill what was the motive from which they acted.

如果有人漂亮地彈奏豎琴，或者實現(xiàn)了成功的治療，那么他們行動的動機對于評價他們的技能沒有任何影響。

But if someone is to be accounted virtuous, it is not enough to perform actions which are objectively irreproachable; they must be performed for the right motive (which, for Aristotle, means that they must spring from the choice of an appropriate way of life).?

但如果有人要被認為是有美德的，僅僅執(zhí)行客觀上無可指責的行為是不夠的；他們必須出于正確的動機去執(zhí)行（對亞里士多德來說，這意味著它們必須源于選擇一種合適的生活方式）。

For this reason, virtue has a much closer connection than skill has with pleasure in action: a virtuous person, Aristotle believed, must enjoy doing what is right, and a grudging performance of duty is not truly virtuous.?

出于這個原因，美德與行動中的快樂有著比技能更緊密的聯(lián)系：一個有美德的人，亞里士多德相信，必須喜歡做正確的事情，而勉強履行職責并不是真正的美德。

Again, a skill can be exercised in wrong actions as well as in right actions.?

再者，技能可以在錯誤的行為和正確的行為中都得到運用。

A tennis player may serve a double fault on purpose, perhaps to avoid too humiliating a defeat for her opponent, and the double fault may be no less a use of her skill than an ace would have been.?

一個網球選手可能故意發(fā)出雙誤，也許是為了避免讓她的對手太丟臉，而雙誤可能不比一發(fā)制勝少用她的技能。

But no one could exercise the virtue of honesty by, once in a while, bringing off a shrewd swindle.?

但沒有人能通過偶爾地進行一次狡猾的詐騙來行使誠實的美德。

Aristotle treats many individual virtues in detail, defining their area of operation, and showing how they conform to the theory of the mean .?

亞里士多德詳細地論述了許多個別的美德，定義了它們的作用范圍，并顯示了它們如何符合中庸之道。

In Book III he deals at length with courage and temperance, the virtues of the parts of the soul which Plato called temper and appetite.?

在第三卷中，他詳細地論述了勇氣和節(jié)制，這是柏拉圖稱之為氣質和欲望的靈魂部分的美德。

He deals also with the vices which flank these virtues: cowardice and rashness on the one hand, and self-indulgence and insensitivity to bodily pleasures on the other.?

他也論述了與這些美德相鄰的惡習：一方面是膽怯和魯莽，另一方面是放縱和對身體快樂的不敏感。

Book IV offers a briefer treatment of a long series of virtues: generosity, munificence, greatness of soul, proper ambition, good temper, sociability, candour, readiness of wit.?

第四卷對一系列長期的美德提供了一個簡短的論述：慷慨、寬宏、高尚的靈魂、適當?shù)男坌摹⒑闷?、社交性、坦率、機智。

The types of character which Aristotle has in mind are described shrewdly and vividly; but his descriptions reflect the social customs and institutions of his age, and not all his preferred virtues would appear nowadays on anyone’s list of the ten most valuable or attractive traits of character.?

亞里士多德心目中的性格類型被描述得精明而生動；但他的描述反映了他所處時代的社會風俗和制度，并不是他所有喜歡的美德都會出現(xiàn)在現(xiàn)在任何人最有價值或最有吸引力的十種性格特征的清單上。

Both merriment and revulsion have been caused, for instance, by the picture of the great-souled man, who is very conscious of his own worth, who always demands his deserts but is too proud to accept gifts, who is reluctant to admire but swift to despise, and who always speaks with a deep voice and walks with a slow step.?

例如，高尚靈魂之人的形象引起了歡笑和厭惡，他非常意識到自己的價值，總是要求得到他應得的，但又太驕傲而不接受禮物，他不愿欽佩別人，卻迅速地輕視別人，他總是用低沉的聲音說話，緩慢地走路。

Aristotle’s contribution to moral philosophy here is not through the individual traits of character he commends, but rather in providing a conceptual structure into which virtues of the most different ages and societies can be fitted with remarkable ease.?

亞里士多德在這里對道德哲學的貢獻不是通過他贊揚的個別性格特征，而是通過提供一個概念結構，使得最不同的時代和社會的美德可以以驚人的容易性被安置進去。

Aristotle’s shorthand account of moral virtue is that it is a state of character expressed in choice, lying in the appropriate mean, determined by the prescription that a wise person would lay down.

亞里士多德對道德美德的簡要描述是，它是一種通過選擇表達的性格狀態(tài)，處于適當?shù)闹杏怪校梢粋€明智的人所制定的處方所決定。

To complete his account, he needs to say what wisdom is, and how a wise person lays down prescriptions.?

為了完善他的論述，他需要說清楚什么是智慧，以及一個明智的人如何制定處方。

This he does in Book VI, where he treats of the intellectual virtues.?

他在第六卷中做了這件事，他在那里論述了智力美德。