Children were widely used as labour in factories, mines, and agriculture during the British Industrial Revolution (1760-1840). Very often working the same 12-hour shifts that adults did, children as young as five years old were paid a pittance to climb under dangerous weaving machines, move coal through narrow mine shafts, and work in agricultural gangs.

英國工業(yè)革命（1760-1840）期間，兒童廣泛從事于工廠、礦山和農(nóng)場。通常情況下，兒童與成年人一樣輪班12小時，并在危險的織布機下爬行、通過狹窄的礦井搬運煤炭以及在農(nóng)場工作而獲得微薄的報酬。

It was very often the case that children's jobs were well-defined and specific to them, in other words, child labour was not merely an extra help for the adult workforce. The education of many children was replaced by a working day, a choice often made by parents to supplement a meagre family income. It was not until the 1820s that governments began to pass laws that restricted working hours and business owners were compelled to provide safer working conditions for everyone, men, women, and children. Even then a lack of inspectors meant many abuses still went on, a situation noted and publicised by charities, philanthropists, and authors with a social conscience like Charles Dickens (1812-1870).

通常情況下，兒童的工作是被明確界定的，而且是專門針對他們的，換句話說，童工不僅僅是對成年勞動力的額外補充。許多兒童的教育被工作所取代，這往往是父母為了貼補微薄的家庭收入而做出的選擇。直到19世紀20年代，政府才開始通過法律，限制工作時間，雇主被迫為每個人（包括男人、女人和兒童）提供更安全的工作條件。即使在那時，由于缺乏檢查員，許多虐待行為仍在發(fā)生，這種情況被慈善機構(gòu)、慈善家和查爾斯·狄更斯（1812-1870）等具有社會良知的作家注意到并公開了這種情況。

Désiré Fran?ois Laugée 創(chuàng)作的 19 世紀油畫，名為《縫紉》。（里約熱內(nèi)盧國家貝拉斯藝術(shù)博物館）

缺乏教育

As sending a child to school involved paying a fee – even the cheapest asked for a penny a day – most parents did not bother. Villages often had a small school, where each pupil's parents paid the teacher, but attendance was sometimes erratic and more often than not the education rudimentary in hopelessly overcrowded classes. There were some free schools run by charities, and churches often offered Sunday school. Not until 1844 were there more free schools available, such as the Ragged schools established by Anthony Ashley-Cooper, 7th Earl of Shaftesbury (1801-1885). These schools concentrated on the basics, what became known as the 3 Rs of Reading, Writing, and Arithmetic. Compulsory education for 5 to 12-year-olds, and the institutions necessary to provide it, would not come along until the 1870s. Consequently, "at least half of nominally school-age children worked full-time during the industrial revolution" (Horn, 57).

由于送孩子上學(xué)需要支付費用（即使是最便宜的學(xué)校也要求每天支付一便士），大多數(shù)家長都不屑一顧。鄉(xiāng)村通常設(shè)有一所小學(xué)校，每個學(xué)生的父母都要支付老師的費用，但出勤率有時不規(guī)律，班級擁擠不堪，教育水平也很初級。在當(dāng)時有一些由慈善機構(gòu)開辦的免費學(xué)校，教會也經(jīng)常提供主日學(xué)校。直到1844年，才有了更多的免費學(xué)校，如沙夫茨伯里第七代伯爵安東尼·阿什利-庫珀?（1801-1885）建立的初級學(xué)校。這些學(xué)校專注于基礎(chǔ)知識，即后來被稱為3 Rs的閱讀、寫作和算術(shù)。5至12歲兒童的義務(wù)教育，以及提供義務(wù)教育所需的機構(gòu)，直到19世紀70年代才出現(xiàn)。因此，“在工業(yè)革命期間，至少有一半名義上的學(xué)齡兒童從事全日制工作”（Horn，57）。

Some factory owners were more generous than others to the children in their employ. An example is the Quarry Bank Mill in Styal in the county of Cheshire. Here the owner provided schooling after the long working day was over for 100 of its child workers in a dedicated building, the Apprentice House.

一些工廠主對其雇傭的兒童相較于其他工廠更慷慨。柴郡Styal

（英格蘭柴郡威姆斯洛附近波林河畔的一個村莊和民政教區(qū)）

的 Quarry Bank 工廠就是一個例子。在這里，工廠主在漫長的工作日后為 100 名打工的孩子在專門為他們建造的學(xué)徒樓內(nèi)提供學(xué)校教育。

An indicator of better education, despite all the difficulties, is literacy rates, rather imperfectly measured by historians by recording the ability of a person to sign one's name on official documents such as marriage certificates. There was a great improvement in literacy, but by 1800, still only half of the adult population could sign their name to such documents.

盡管困難重重，在當(dāng)時教育改善的一個指標是識字率，歷史學(xué)家通過記錄一個人在結(jié)婚證書等官方文件上簽名的能力來衡量，這一點相當(dāng)不完善。識字率在當(dāng)時有了很大的提高，但到了1800年，仍然只有一半的成年人口能在此類文件上簽上自己的名字。

For those children who could find work in the Industrial Revolution, and there were employers queueing up to offer it, there were no trade unions to protect them. For the vast majority of children, working life started at an early age – on average at 8 years old – but as nobody really cared about age, this could vary wildly. Working involved at best tedium and at worst an endless round of threats, fines, corporal punishment, and instant dismissal at any protest to such treatment. In one survey taken in 1833, it was found that the tactics used with child labourers were 95% negative. Instant dismissal accounted for 58%. In only 4% of cases was a reward given for good work, and a mere 1% of the strategies used involved a promotion or pay rise.

對于那些在工業(yè)革命中能夠找到工作的兒童，且有雇主排隊為他們提供工作，但沒有工會來保護他們。對絕大多數(shù)兒童來說，工作生活在他們很小的時候就開始了（平均為8歲），但由于沒有人真正關(guān)心其年齡，所以可能會有很大差異。工作最好的情況是乏味，最壞的情況是無休止的威脅、罰款、體罰，以及對這種待遇的任何抗議都會被立即解雇。在1833年進行的一項調(diào)查顯示，對童工采取的策略有95%是負面的，立即開除占58%，只有4%的情況下對工作出色的人給予獎勵，所使用的策略中只有1%涉及晉升或加薪。

插圖顯示一名兒童將一桶煤炭從礦井工作面拉至地面。童工在英國的礦山中很常見，直到 1842 年《礦山法》才受到限制。

傳統(tǒng)的兒童工作

In the traditional cottage industry of handweaving, children had always washed and carded raw wool so that their mother could spin it on a spinning wheel, which then was woven into fabric by the father using a handloom. Craftworkers often took on an apprentice or two. Apprentices were given their board and lodgings and taught a particular trade by their master. In return, the child not only worked for free but was expected to pay a large fee upfront before starting a contract that could last a year or several years or even up to seven years, depending on the trade. Then there were children who worked in their parents' or relations' small businesses, such as small-scale manufacturers like basket-weavers, blacksmiths, and potters.

在傳統(tǒng)的手工編織業(yè)中，孩子們一般將原毛洗凈并梳理好，以便母親可以在紡車上紡紗然后由父親使用手織機將其織成布。手工業(yè)者通常會招收一兩個學(xué)徒。學(xué)徒得到食宿，并由他們的師傅教授一門特殊的手藝。作為回報，孩子不僅要免費工作，而且要在開始簽訂合同前預(yù)付一大筆費用，合同可能持續(xù)一年或幾年，甚至長達七年，這取決于行業(yè)性質(zhì)。然后是在父母或親戚的小企業(yè)中工作的孩子，如籃子編織者、鐵匠和陶工等小規(guī)模制造商。

Children worked in agriculture, still a significant area during the Industrial Revolution and one which involved 35% of Britain's total workforce in 1800. Children, as they always had done, continued to tend herds of animals and flocks of fowl, and they essentially performed any task required that they were physically capable of. Many children joined agricultural gangs which moved around to where there was temporary or seasonal employment.

兒童在農(nóng)業(yè)領(lǐng)域工作，這在工業(yè)革命期間仍然是一個重要的領(lǐng)域，在1800年涉及英國總勞動力的35%。兒童一如既往地繼續(xù)照看畜群和雞群，他們基本上從事任何其身體力行的任務(wù)。許多兒童加入了農(nóng)業(yè)小組，在有臨時或季節(jié)性工作的地方四處勞作。

弗蘭克·梅多·薩克利夫 (Frank Meadow Sutcliffe) 于 20 世紀初拍攝的一張照片，照片中一名兒童與成年人一起在工廠工作。工業(yè)革命期間及之后，童工被廣泛使用。（阿姆斯特丹國家博物館）

礦井里的兒童

Men, women, and children worked in Britain's mines, particularly in the coal mines, which boomed as they produced the fuel to feed the steam engines of the Industrial Revolution. All three groups had been involved in mining before the arrival of machines, but the industry's expansion meant that many more were now involved than previously. Children as young as five years old were found useful by mine owners since they were small enough to climb into narrow ventilation shafts where they could ensure that trapdoors were regularly opened and shut. Testimony like James Pearce's in 1842 was common: I am 12 years of age. I went down to the pits about 7 years and a half to open doors. I had a candle and a fire beside me to show me light…I was 12 hours a-day, and got 6d a day. I attended and got the money. When I was paid I took it home to my mother. I was a year and a half at this work. I once fell asleep and was well threshed by a driver.(Shelley, 42)

男人、女人和兒童都在英國的礦場工作，尤其是煤礦，由于煤礦生產(chǎn)的燃料用于工業(yè)革命的蒸汽機，因此煤礦蓬勃發(fā)展。在機器到來之前，這三個群體都曾參與過采礦，但該行業(yè)的擴張意味著現(xiàn)在參與其中的人比以前更多。礦主發(fā)現(xiàn)年僅5歲的兒童很有用，因為他們足夠廋小，可以爬到狹窄的通風(fēng)井中，確?；畎彘T定期開閉。像詹姆斯·皮爾斯 (James Pearce)?在1842年的證詞很常見：

我今年12歲了，大約7年半前，我開始下井開門。我有一根蠟燭，旁邊有一個火堆給我照明......我每天工作12個小時，賺 6 便士，我答應(yīng)了并拿到了錢。當(dāng)我得到報酬時，我把它帶回家給我母親。我在這份工作上花了一年半的時間。有一次我睡著了，被一名礦車司機狠狠地打了一頓。

Most children, as they got older, were then employed to either shift the coal from the working level to the surface or to sort it out from other debris before it was shipped away. Those who pulled the coal in carts using a harness were known as 'hurriers', and those who pushed were 'thrusters'. This was back-breaking work detrimental to the child's physical development. Many parents were not opposed to their children working, despite the health hazards, since they brought in much-needed earnings for the family. In addition, over half of the children working in mines kept their employment when they reached adulthood, so it was a good route to secure a job for life. From 1800 to 1850, children composed between 20-50% of the mining workforce.

隨著年齡的增長，大多數(shù)兒童被雇用將煤炭從工作層轉(zhuǎn)移到地面，或者在運走之前將其從其他廢物中分揀出來。那些用馬具拉煤的人被稱為“hurriers”

（搬運工，有時也稱為抽煤機或推煤機，是受雇于煤礦工人運輸他們開采的煤炭的兒童或婦女）

，而那些推煤的人被稱為“thrusters”。這是很辛苦的工作，不利于孩子的身體發(fā)育。盡管有健康危害，許多父母并不反對他們的孩子工作，因為他們?yōu)榧彝砹思毙璧氖杖?。此外，在礦山工作的兒童中，有一半以上在成年后繼續(xù)工作，因此，這是確保終身工作的一個好途徑。從1800年到1850年，兒童占采礦業(yè)勞動力的20-50%。

The consequence of working at such an early age was that most children employed in mines never had more than three years of schooling. Children very often suffered health problems from the physical hard work and long, 12-hour shifts. Breathing in coal dust year after year caused many to develop lung diseases later in life. As the historian S. Yorke emphatically notes, "The coal mining industry must represent one of the worst exploitations of men, women and children ever to have taken place in Britain" (98).

從小工作的后果是，大多數(shù)受雇于礦場的兒童從未接受過三年以上的教育。孩子們經(jīng)常因為體力勞動和長時間的12小時輪班而出現(xiàn)健康問題。年復(fù)一年地吸入煤塵使許多人在以后的生活中患上了肺部疾病。正如歷史學(xué)家S.Yorke所強調(diào)的那樣，“煤礦業(yè)必須代表英國有史以來對男人、女人和兒童最惡劣的剝削之一”（98）。

工業(yè)革命時期，一名童工（尼爾·加拉格爾飾）在賓夕法尼亞州的一座礦山事故中受傷。他當(dāng)時只有13歲。

工廠里的兒童

Factories with new steam-powered machines like power looms were the great development of the Industrial Revolution, but they came at a cost. These places, especially the textile mills, were dark and noisy, and they were deliberately kept damp so that the cotton threads were more supple and less likely to break. The new mechanization of manufacturing meant that few skills were needed anymore for the basic workforce. Children were required to go under the machines to clear up cotton waste for reuse or to repair broken threads or remove blockages from the machinery. This was often dangerous work as the machines could be unpredictable. A massive weaving machine might come to a crashing halt with heavy parts falling down and movable pieces like spindles flying around like bullets.

擁有動力織機等新的蒸汽動力機器的工廠是工業(yè)革命的偉大發(fā)展，但它們也是有代價的。這些地方，特別是紡織廠，黑暗而嘈雜，而且刻意保持潮濕，以便棉線更加柔軟，不易斷裂。制造業(yè)的新機械化意味著基本勞動力幾乎不用具備什么技能。孩子們被要求到機器下面清理棉花廢料以便再利用，或者修理斷線或清除機器上的堵塞物。這往往是危險的工作，因為機器可能無法預(yù)測。一臺巨大的織布機可能會突然崩潰，沉重的部件掉下來，像主軸這樣的可移動部件會像子彈一樣飛來飛去。

In the factories, children worked, just like the adults around them, long 12-hour shifts six days a week. 12 hours nicely split the day in two for employers. As the machines were operated 24 hours a day, one child would return to a warm bed after work as the occupant rolled out to start their own shift, a practice known as 'hot bedding'. Children were the cheapest labour to be found, and employers were not slow to use them. A child worker was about 80% cheaper than a man and 50% cheaper than a woman. Children had the advantage of having nimble fingers and smaller bodies that could get into places and under machinery that adults could not. They could also be bullied and threatened by supervisors much more easily than an adult, and they could not fight back.

在工廠里，孩子們像周圍的成年人一樣，每周工作六天，輪班 12 小時。對雇主來說，12個小時很好地將一天分成兩部分。由于機器一天24小時都在運轉(zhuǎn)，一個孩子在下班后會回到溫暖的床上，因為床上的人要開始自己的工作，這種做法被稱為“暖床”。兒童是當(dāng)時可以找到的最廉價的勞動力，而雇主們很早就注意到這一點。一個童工比一個男人便宜80%，比一個女人便宜50%。兒童的優(yōu)點是手指靈活，身體較小，可以進入成年人無法進入的地方和機器下面。他們也比成年人更容易受到監(jiān)管人員的欺負和威脅，而且他們無法反擊。

Children were also apprenticed to factory owners in a system similar to indenture. Parents were given money by their parish to allow their children to work in factories. The practice was common, and it was not until 1816 that a limit was put on how far away the children were required to work – 64 km (40 mi).

在一個類似于契約的制度中，兒童也被作為學(xué)徒交給工廠主。教區(qū)給父母錢，讓他們的孩子在工廠工作。這種做法很普遍，直到1816年，才對兒童工作的距離進行了限制：64公里（40英里）。

Children made up around one-third of the workforce in Britain's factories. In 1832, as the Industrial Revolution reached its final decade, these children were still subject to appalling working conditions in factories, as here described by the MP Michael Sadler, who pressed for reform: Even, at this moment, while I am thus speaking on behalf of these oppressed children, what numbers of them are still at their toil, confined to heated rooms, bathed in perspiration, stunned with the roar of revolving wheels, poisoned with the noxious effluvia of grease and gas, til at last, weary and exhausted, they turn out almost naked, plunge into the inclement air, and creep shivering to beds from which a relay of their young work-fellows have just risen; and such is the fate of many of them at the best while in numbers of instances, they are diseased, stunted, crippled, depraved, destroyed.(Shelley, 18)

在英國的工廠里，兒童占了大約三分之一的勞動力。1832年，隨著工業(yè)革命進入最后十年，這些兒童仍然在工廠里遭受著駭人聽聞的工作條件，正如國會議員邁克爾·薩德勒 (Michael Sadler)所描述的那樣：

此時此刻，當(dāng)我為這些受壓迫的孩子說話時，他們中的許多人仍在辛勤工作，被關(guān)在充斥著暖氣的房間里，沐浴在汗水中，被旋轉(zhuǎn)的車輪的轟鳴聲驚呆，被油脂和氣體的有毒液體所毒害，直到最后，他們疲憊不堪，幾乎赤身裸體，沉浸在惡劣的空氣中，顫抖著爬到床上，他們年輕的工作伙伴剛從床上爬起來；這就是他們中許多人最好的命運，而在許多情況下，他們生病了，發(fā)育不良了，殘廢了，墮落了，被毀滅了。 (雪萊, 18)

美國佐治亞州一家棉紡廠的童工。照片拍攝于 1909 年。（美國國會圖書館）

窮人和孤兒

Children without homes and a paid position elsewhere were, if boys, often trained to become a Shoe Black, that is someone who shined shoes in the street. These paupers were given this opportunity by charitable organisations so that they would not have to go to the infamous workhouse. The workhouse was brought into existence in 1834 and was deliberately intended to be such an awful place that it did little more than keep its inhabitants alive in the belief that any more charity than that would simply encourage the poor not to bother looking for paid work. The workhouse involved what its name suggests – work, but it was tedious work indeed, typically unpleasant and repetitive tasks like crushing bones to make glue or cleaning the workhouse itself. No wonder, then, given the squalid life in the workhouse, that many children worked in factories and mines.

沒有家庭和其他有償職位的兒童，如果是男孩，往往會被訓(xùn)練成擦鞋匠，也就是在街上擦鞋的人。這些貧民由慈善組織提供這個機會，這樣他們就不必去臭名昭著的濟貧院。濟貧院于1834年成立，它被刻意設(shè)計成一個可怕的地方，除了讓這里的居民活命之外，幾乎沒有其他作用，因為人們相信，再多的施舍也只會鼓勵窮人懶得去找有償工作。濟貧院（workhouse）的工作正如其名稱所示：工作（work），但確實是乏味的工作，通常是令人不快的重復(fù)性工作，如粉碎骨頭

（骨頭制備骨膠：將骨廢料（通常是動物骨頭）粉碎、清潔并用蒸汽處理，從而釋放出膠水物質(zhì)）

來制作膠水或清潔濟貧院本身。因此，鑒于濟貧院的骯臟生活，許多兒童在工廠和礦場工作也就不足為奇了。

政府勞動改革

Eventually, governments did what the fledgling trade unions had struggled to achieve, and from the 1830s, the situation for workers in factories and mines, including for children, began to slowly improve. Previously, governments had always been reluctant to restrict trade in principle, preferring a laissez-faire approach to economics. It did not help that many members of Parliament were themselves large-scale employers. Nevertheless, several acts of Parliament were passed to try, although not always successfully, to limit employers' exploitation of their workforce and lay down minimum standards.

最終，政府完成了剛剛成立的工會所努力實現(xiàn)的目標，從19世紀30年代開始，工廠和礦場的工人，包括兒童的狀況開始慢慢改善。此前，政府一直不愿意在原則上限制貿(mào)易，而是傾向于采取自由放任的經(jīng)濟方式。許多國會議員本身就是大規(guī)模的雇主，這一點也沒有幫助。盡管如此，議會還是通過了幾項法案，試圖限制雇主對勞動力的剝削，并規(guī)定了最低標準，盡管并不總是成功。

The first industry to receive restrictions on worker exploitation was the cotton industry, but soon the new laws applied to workers of any kind. The 1802 Health and Morals of Apprentices Act stipulated that child apprentices should not work more than 12 hours a day, they must be given a basic education, and they must attend church services no fewer than two times each month. More acts followed, and this time they applied to all working children. The 1819 Cotton Mills and Factories Act limited work to children 9 years or over, and they could not work for more than 12 hours per day if under 16 years of age. Possible working hours for children were established as between 6 a.m. and 9 p.m. The 1833 Factory Act stipulated that children in any industry could not be legally employed under 9 years of age and could not be asked to work for more than 8 hours each day if aged 9 to 13, or no more than 12 hours each day if aged between 14 and 18. The same act prohibited all children from working at night and made it obligatory for children to attend a minimum of two hours of education each day.

第一個受到工人剝削限制的行業(yè)是棉花業(yè)，但很快，新的法律就適用于任何種類的工人。1802年的《學(xué)徒健康和道德法》規(guī)定，兒童學(xué)徒每天的工作時間不得超過12小時，他們必須接受基本教育，并且每月必須參加不少于兩次的宗教儀式。更多的法案隨后出臺，這一次它們適用于所有工作的兒童。1819年的《棉紡廠和工廠法》將工作限制在9歲或以上的兒童，如果未滿16歲，他們每天的工作時間不能超過12小時。1833年《工廠法》規(guī)定，任何行業(yè)不得合法雇用9歲以下的兒童；如果兒童是9至13歲，每天不得要求他們工作超過8小時；如果兒童是14至18歲，每天不得超過12小時。同一法案禁止所有兒童在夜間工作，并規(guī)定兒童每天必須接受至少兩小時的教育。

Although there were many abuses of the new regulations, there were government inspectors tasked with ensuring they were followed. These officials could demand, for example, age certificates for any child employee or a certificate from a schoolmaster that the required number of hours of education had been given to a specific child.

雖然有許多人濫用新法規(guī)，但有政府檢查員負責(zé)確保這些法規(guī)得到遵守。例如，這些官員可以要求提供任何兒童雇員的年齡證明，或由學(xué)校校長出具證明，證明某位兒童已經(jīng)接受了規(guī)定小時數(shù)的教育。

Progressive changes followed the earlier acts. The 1842 Mines Act stipulated that no child under 10 years of age could be employed in underground work. The 1844 Factory Act limited anyone's working day to 12 hours, dangerous machines had to be placed in a separate workspace, and sanitary regulations were imposed on employers. The 1847 Factory Act further limited the working day to a maximum of 10 hours, a reduction that campaigners had long been lobbying the government to make. There were still many abusers of the new laws, and many parents still desperately needed the extra income their working children brought, but attitudes were finally changing in wider society in regard to using children for labour.

以前的法律被逐步修改。1842年的《采礦法》規(guī)定，不得雇用10歲以下的兒童從事地下工作。1844年的《工廠法》將任何人的工作時間限制在12小時以內(nèi)，危險的機器必須放在單獨的工作區(qū)，并對雇主實施衛(wèi)生規(guī)定。1847年的《工廠法》進一步將工作日限制在10小時以內(nèi)，這是運動者長期以來游說政府做出的一項削減。仍然有許多濫用新法律的人，許多父母仍然迫切需要他們工作的孩子帶來的額外收入，但更廣泛的社會對使用兒童勞動的態(tài)度終于發(fā)生了變化。

Authors like Charles Dickens wrote such damning works as Oliver Twist (1837) that pointed out the plight of poorer children. In the moralism of the Victorian period, many people now wanted children to preserve their innocence longer and not be so early exposed to the temptations and moral pitfalls of adult life. The idea that childhood was worth keeping but could be lost if not protected saw the foundation of the National Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children in 1889. The arts continued to prick people's consciences. J. M. Barries' character of Peter Pan, which first appeared in 1901, confirmed this shifting of attitudes and the realisation and recognition that childhood was a thing of value in and of itself, a precious thing that should not be obliterated in the daily grind of mines and factories.

像查爾斯·狄更斯（Charles Dickens）這樣的作家寫下了《霧都孤兒》（Oliver Twist，1837年）這樣具有破壞性的作品，指出了貧窮兒童的困境。在維多利亞時期的道德主義中，許多人現(xiàn)在希望兒童能夠更長久地保持他們的純真，而不是那么早暴露在成人生活的誘惑和道德陷阱中。童年是值得保留的，但如果不加以保護就會失去，這種想法促使1889年成立了全國防止虐待兒童協(xié)會。藝術(shù)繼續(xù)刺激著人們的良知。JM 巴里斯 (JM Barries) 于 1901 年首次出演的彼得·潘 (Peter Pan)角色證實了這種態(tài)度的轉(zhuǎn)變，以及人們意識并認識到童年本身就是一件有價值的東西，是一件珍貴的東西，不應(yīng)該在礦山和工廠的日常工作中被抹殺。

參考書目：

Allen, Robert C.

The British Industrial Revolution in Global Perspective.

Cambridge University Press, 2009. Corey, Melinda & Ochoa, George.

The Encyclopedia of the Victorian World.

Henry Holt & Co, 1996. Dugan, Sally & Dugan, David.

The Day the World Took Off.

Channel 4 Book, 2023. Hepplewhite, Peter.

Industrial Revolution

. Wayland, 2016. Horn, Jeff.

The Industrial Revolution

. Greenwood, 2007. Humphries, Jane.

Childhood and Child Labour in the British Industrial Revolution

. Cambridge University Press, 2011. Shelley, C et al.

Industrialisation and Social Change in Britain

. PEARSON SCHOOLS, 2016.

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原文作者：

Mark Cartwright

?????????駐意大利的歷史作家。他的主要興趣包括陶瓷、建筑、世界神話和發(fā)現(xiàn)所有文明的共同思想。他擁有政治哲學(xué)碩士學(xué)位，是《世界歷史百科全書》的出版總監(jiān)。

原文網(wǎng)址：https://www.worldhistory.org/trans/es/2-2216/trabajo-infantil-en-la-revolucion-industrial-brita/